m 


,,    U , 


\ 

DUCATION 

S6RI6S 


^^  JH| 


EDITED   BY 

WILLIAM  T.  HARRIS,  A.  M.,  LL.  D. 
VOLUME  II. 


INTERNATIONAL  EDUCATION  SERIES. 

EDITED  BY  W.  T.  HARRIS. 


IT  is  proposed  to  publish,  under  the  above  title,  a  library  for  teachers 
and  school  managers,  and  text-books  for  normal  classes.  The  aim  will 
be  to  provide  works  of  a  useful  practical  character  in  the  broadest  sense. 

The  following  conspectus  will  show  the  ground  to  be  covered  by  the 
series : 

I.— History  of  Education.  (A.)  Original  systems  as  ex- 
pounded by  their  founders.  (B.)  Critical  histories  which  set  forth  the 
customs  of  the  past  and  point  out  their  advantages  and  defects,  explain- 
ing the  grounds  of  their  adoption,  and  also  of  theii  final  disuse. 

II.— Educational  Criticism.  (A.)  The  noteworthy  arraign- 
ments which  educational  reformers  have  put  forth  against  existing  sys- 
tems :  these  compose  the  classics  of  pedagogy.  (B.)  The  critical  histories 
above  mentioned. 

m.— Systematic  Treatises  on  the  Theory  of  Edu- 
cation. (A.)  Works  written  from  the  historical  standpoint;  these, 
for  the  most  part,  show  a  tendency  to  justify  the  traditional  course  of 
study  and  to  defend  the  prevailing  methods  of  instruction.  (B.)  Works 
written  from  critical  standpoints,  and  to  a  greater  or  less  degree  revolu- 
tionary in  their  tendency. 

IV.— The  Art  of  Education.  (A.)  Works  on  instruction 
and  discipline,  and  the  practical  details  of  the  school-room.  (B.)  Works 
on  the  organization  and  supervision  of  schools. 

Practical  insight  into  the  educational  methods  in  vogue  can  not  be 
attained  without  a  knowledge  of  the  process  by  which  they  have  come  to 
be  established.  For  this  reason  it  is  proposed  to  give  special  prominence 
to  the  history  of  the  systems  that  have  prevailed. 

Again,  since  history  is  incompetent  to  furnish  the  ideal  of  the  future, 
it  is  necessary  to  devote  large  space  to  works  of  educational  criticism. 
Criticism  is  the  purifying  process  by  which  ideals  are  rendered  clear  and 
potent,  so  that  progress  becomes  possible. 

History  and  criticism  combined  make  possible  a  theory  of  the  whole. 


For,  with  an  ideal  toward  which  the  entire  movement  tends,  and  an  ac- 
count of  the  phases  that  have  appeared  in  time,  the  connected  develop- 
ment of  the  whole  can  be  shown,  and  all  united  into  one  system. 

Lastly,  after  the  science,  comes  the  practice.  The  art  of  education  is 
treated  in  special  works  devoted  to  the  devices  and  technical  details  use- 
ful in  the  school-room. 

It  is  believed  that  the  teacher  does  not  need  authority  so  much  as  in- 
sight hi  matters  of  education.  When  he  understands  the  theory  of  edu- 
cation and  the  history  of  its  growth,  and  has  matured  his  own  point 
of  view  by  careful  study  of  the  critical  literature  of  education,  then  he  is 
competent  to  select  or  invent  such  practical  devices  as  are  best  adapted 
to  his  own  wants. 

The  series  will  contain  works  from  European  as  well  as  American 
authors,  and  will  be  under  the  editorship  of  W.  T.  HARRIS,  A.  M.,  LL.  D. 
The  price  for  the  volumes  of  the  series  will  be  $1.50  for  the  larger 
volumes,  75  cents  for  the  smaller  ones. 

Vol.  I.    The  Philosophy  of  Education.    By  Johann  Karl 

Friedrich  Rosenkranz.     12mo,  cloth,  $1.50. 
Vol.  II.    A  History  of  Education.    By  Prof.  F.  V.  N.  Painter, 

of  Roanoke,  Virginia. 


INTERNATIONAL   EDUCATION  SERIES 


A  HISTORY 


OF 


EDUCATION 


BY 

F.    Y.    N.    PAINTER,    A.  M. 

PBOFES80B  OP  MODEBN   LANGUAGES   AND  LITBEATUBE  IN  BOANOKB  OOLLBGB 


NEW   YORK 
D.   APPLETON   AND   COMPANY 

1,  3,  AND  5  BOND  STREET 
1886 


COPTRIGHT,  1886, 

BY  D.  APPLETON  AND  COMPANY. 


DEDICATED 


JBemorg  of  mj 


EDITOR'S  PREFACE. 


THE  following  work  by  Prof.  Painter  takes  up  the 
subject  from  the  standpoint  of  the  history  of  civiliza- 
tion. The  educational  ideals  that  have  prevailed  have 
been  derived  from  the  principles  that  have  controlled 
nations  and  religions.  Each  State  has  evolved  a  sys- 
tem of  education  in  conformity  with  the  fundamental 
idea  of  its  civilization.  It  may  or  may  not  have  had 
a  system  of  schools,  but  it  has  possessed  instrumen- 
talities for  education  in  the  family,  civil  society,  and 
religious  ceremonial,  besides  its  own  direct  discipline 
through  the  laws  and  their  administration  and  through 
its  public  service,  civil  and  military.  In  religion, 
whether  Christian  or  "heathen,"  there  is  implied  a 
definite  fundamental  view  of  the  world  which  is  re- 
ferred to  in  all  concrete  relations,  and  by  this  there  is 
given  a  sort  of  systematic  unity  to  the  details  of  life. 
The  first  object  of  parental  government  is  to  train  the 
child  into  habits  of  conformity  to  the  current  religious 


yjii  EDITOR'S  PREFACE. 

view.  The  government  seeks  to  enforce  an  observance 
of  regulations  that  establish  social  relations  founded  on 
the  view  of  the  world  furnished  in  religion. 

We  learn,  therefore,  to  look  for  the  explanation  of 
the  system  of  education  in  the  national  ideal  as  revealed 
in  its  religion,  art,  social  customs,  and  form  of  govern- 
ment. A  new  phase  of  civilization  demands  a  new 
system  of  education.  The  school,  originally  organized 
as  an  instrumentality  of  the  Church,  is  needed  to  re-en- 
force the  other  institutions,  and  accordingly  in  modern 
times  gets  expansion  and  modification  for  this  object. 
It  is  in  this  study  of  the  civilization  as  a  whole  that  we 
learn  to  comprehend  the  organization  of  the  schools  of 
a  country. 

The  attention  of  the  reader  is  called,  first,  to  the 
broad  contrast  between  the  spirit  of  education  as  it  ex- 
isted in  Asia  and  that  in  Europe.  Subjection  to  au- 
thority is  the  principle  on  which  most  stress  is  laid  in 
the  former.  The  development  of  the  individual  seems 
to  be  the  constantly  growing  tendency  in  the  latter,  and 
especially  in  its  colonies.  Absolute  rulers,  castes,  pa- 
rental government,  and  ethical  codes,  form  the  chief 
themes  of  interest  in  Oriental  education.  Personal 
adventure,  its  celebration  in  works  of  art,  the  growth 
of  constitutional  forms  of  government  that  protect  the 
individual  from  the  substantial  might  of  the  ruling 
authority,  free  thought,  its  organization  into  science— 
these  are  the  features  that  attract  us  in  the  civilization 


EDITOR'S  PREFACE.  ix 

of  the  Occident,  and  which  explain  its  educational  sys- 
tems. 

Inasmuch  as  the  element  of  authority  continues 
throughout  all  history  as  a  necessary  strand  of  civiliza- 
tion, it  follows  that  Oriental  civilization  has  important 
lessons  for  all  people,  even  the  most  democratic.  The 
net  result  of  the  life  of  the  race  must  be  summed  up 
and  given  to  the  child,  so  that  he  shall  be  saved  from 
repeating  the  errors  that  had  to  be  lived  through  before 
the  wisdom  expressed  by  the  ethical  code  could  be 
generalized.  Implicit  obedience  has  to  be  the  first 
lesson  for  the  child.  How  he  shall  gradually  become 
endowed  with  self-control,  and  finally  have  the  free 
management  of  all  his  affairs,  is  the  further  problem  of 
the  educational  system.  - 

After  the  reader  has  studied  the  spirit  of  the 
Asiatic  systems,  he  will  find  his  interest  in  fixing  as 
clearly  as  possible  the  spirit  of  Christianity  before  his 
mind,  as  it  is  portrayed  in  the  third  chapter  of  this 
book.  The  influence  of  such  an  idea  as  that  of  the 
Divine-human  God  condescending  to  assume  the  sor- 
rows and  trials  of  mortal  life,  all  for  the  sake  of  the 
elevation  of  individual  souls,  the  humblest  and  weakest 
as  well  as  the  mightiest  and  most  exalted,  is  potent  to 
transform  civilization.  That  the  divine  history  should 
be  that  of  infinite  tenderness  and  consideration  for  the 
individual,  even  in  his  imperfections,  acts  as  a  perma- 
nent cause  to  affect  the  relation  of  the  directing  and 


EDITOR'S  PREFACE. 

JL 

controlling  powers  in  human  society  to  the  masses  be- 
neath them.    The  whole  policy  of  the  institutions 
civilization-family,  state,  church-becomes  more 
more  one  of  tender  nurture  and  development  of 
viduality  as  the  highest  object  to  be  sought  by  1 

manity. 

In  the  fourth  chapter,  Prof.  Painter  has  trac 
process  of  fixing  the  course  of  the  new  civilization,  jus 
as  in  the  third  chapter  the  chief  theme  is  the  rea( 
against  the  old  forms  of  heathen  education  that  i 
survived.     After  the  Church  has  become  firmly  e 
lished  politically  and  doctrinally,  there  arises  the  strug- 
gle within  it  of  the  two  tendencies  represented,  on  tl 
one  hand,  by  the  so-called  "humanist"  direction  wine 
lays  chief  stress  on  language-studies,  and  puts  forward 
the  mastery  of  Latin  and  Greek  as  the  propaedeutic 
of  all  genuine  culture;  and,  by  the  naturalism  on 
other,  that  insists  upon  the  study  of  Nature  and 
perimental  science  as  the  true  road  to  culture. 

In  the  struggle  between  the  study  of  the  "humani- 
ties" and  the  study  of  the   "moderns"  (or  science, 
modern  languages,  modern  literature,  and  history),  * 
have  reached  the  process  that  still  goes  on  in  our  o 
"day  unadjusted  by  the  discovery  of  a  common  grounc 
that  conserves  the  merits  of  both  tendencies.     In  ( 
nese  education,  with  its  exclusive  training  of  the  me; 
ory,  in  the  study  of  Latin  and  Greek  among  modern 
European  nations,  and,  indeed,  in  such  trivial  matters 


EDITOR'S  PREFACE.  xi 

as  the  study  of  English  spelling,  with  its  lack  of  con- 
sistency and  its  strain  on  the  mechanical  memory,  we 
see  the  same  educational  effects  obtained.     Memory  is 
the  faculty  that  subordinates  the  present  under  the 
past,  and  its  extensive  training  develops  a  habit  of 
mind  that  holds  by  what  is  prescribed,  and  recoils  from 
the  new  and  untried.     In  short,  the  educational  cur- 
riculum that  lays  great  stress  on  memorizing  produces 
a  class  of  conservative  people.     On  the  other  hand,  the 
studies  that  develop  original  powers  of  observation,  and 
especially  a  scientific  mind,  devoted  to  Nature  and  neg- 
lecting human  history,  produces  a  radical,  not  to  say 
revolutionizing,  tendency.    It  must  be  obvious  that  true 
progress  demands  both  tendencies,  held  in  equilibrium. 
The  study  of  the  wisdom  of  the  race,  the  acceptance 
of  the  heritage  of  the  past  life  of  the  race,  is  essential 
to  save  the  new  generation  from  repeating  all  the  steps 
traveled  on  the  way  hitherto.     This  necessitates  the 
grounding  of  education  in  a  study  of  the  humanities. 
On  the  other  hand,  if  this  load  of  prescription  is  not  to 
be  a  millstone  that  crushes  out  all  spontaneity  from  the 
rising  generation,  there  must  be  a  counter-movement 
whose  principle  is  the  scientific  spirit,  approaching  the 
world  of  Nature  and  the  world  of  institutions  with  the 
free  attitude  of  science  and  individual  investigation, 
which  accepts  only  the  results  that  can  be  demonstrated 
or  verified  by  its  own  activity,  and  enjoys  therefore  a 
feeling  of  self-recognition  in  its  acquisitions.     In  sci- 


EDITOR'S  PREFACE. 


ence,  man  is  doubly  active:  on  tlie  one  hand,  seizing 
and  inventorying  the  particular  fact  or  event;  on  t 
other  hand,  subsuming  it  under  a  universal  principle 
that  involves  causal  energy  and  a  law  of  action. 
act  of  subsumption  gives  the  mind  special  gratification 
because  it  feels  set  free  from  the  limited  instance  and 
elevated  to  the  realm  of  principle,  wherein  it  sees  the 
energy  that  creates  all  instances,  and  contains  them  all 
potentially  within  itself.    Hence,  the  spirit  of  revolu- 
tion that  is  gaining  so  powerful  a  hold  of  society  in  the 
most  recent  times.     The  spirit  of  science  is  contagious, 
and  impels  toward  complete  emancipation  from  the 
past.    But  science  has  made  comparatively  little  prog- 
ress in  the  social  and  political  departments,  and,  be- 
sides this,  no  one  is  born  with  science,  nor  is  it  possible 
for  one  to  attain  it  in  early  youth.     Hence,  it  is  nec< 
sary  to  retain  the  prescriptive  element  in  education, 
and  to  insist  upon  implicit  obedience  to  prescribed  rale 
at  first.     There  must  be  a  gradual  transition  over  1 
self-government  and  free  scientific  investigation. 

W.  T.  HAKKIS. 

CONCOED,  MASS.,  April,  1886. 


AUTHOR'S  PREFACE. 


IT  was  in  the  library  of  the  University  of  Bonn, 
nearly  four  years  ago,  as  I  sat  before  an  alcove  of 
educational  works  and  leisurely  examined  the  admira- 
ble histories  by  Eaunier  and  Karl  Schmidt,  that  the 
thought  and  purpose  of  preparing  this  work  were  first 
conceived.  In  view  of  the  poverty  of  our  literature  in 
educational  history,  it  seemed  to  me  that  such  a  work, 
by  exhibiting  the  pedagogical  principles,  labors,  and 
progress  of  the  past,  might  be  helpful  to  teachers  in 
America. 

The  history  of  education,  viewed  from  the  stand- 
point of  the  philosophy  of  history,  has  been  traced  in 
its  relations  with  the  social,  political,  and  religious  con- 
ditions of  each  country.  While  the  results  of  French 
and  German  scholarship  in  this  field  have  been  utilized, 
the  original  sources  of  information  whenever  accessible 
have  been  consulted.  As  far  as  was  consistent  with  the 
limits  of  this  volume,  the  great  teachers  of  all  ages  have 


AUTHOR'S  PREFACE. 

XI V 

been  allowed  to  speak  for  themselves-a  method  that 
appeared  more  satisfactory  than  to  paraphrase  or  epit 

mize  their  views. 

Avoiding  such  matters  of  detail  as  serve  only  1 
confuse  and  oppress  the  memory,  I  have  endeavored 
to  present  clearly  the  leading  characteristics  of  each  pe- 
riod, and  the  labors  and  distinctive  principles  of  promi- 
nent educators.      Considerable   prominence   has   been 
given  to  Comenius,  Pestalozzi,  Froebel,  and  other  ed 
cational  reformers,  who  laid  the  foundations  of  the 
scientific  methods  now  coming  into  general  use 
support  or  illustration  of  various  statements,  recogni* 
authorities  have  been  permitted  to  speak  freely. 

In  preparing  this  history  my  position  has 
I  believe,  that  of  conservative  progress.    While 
is  valuable  in  educational  theory  and  practice  is  to  be 
retained,  and  novelties  are  to  be  subjected  to  rigi( 
scrutiny,  it  does  not  seem  wise,  in  view  of  the  fact 
the  science  of  education  is  yet  incomplete,  to  rejec 
summarily  all  changes  and  reforms  as  unnecessary  and 
hurtful  innovations.    In  the  sphere  of  higher  educati< 
I  have  not  allied  myself  to  either  the  humanists 
realists,  believing  that  the  truth  lies  between  these  two 
extremes.     In  every  department  of  education  1 
been  able  to  discover  progress,  and  it  is  my  coi 
hope  that  the  agitations  of  the  present  will  issue  in  a 
system  more  nearly  perfect  than  any  yet  devised.  ' 
I   have    frequently    consulted    Paroz's 


AUTHOR'S  PREFACE.  XV 

Universelle  de  la  Pedagogie,"  Dittes's  "  GescMchte  der 
Erziehung,"  and  Kauiner's  "  Geschichte  der  Pddago- 
gik "  /  but  my  greatest  obligation  is  due  to  Karl 
Schmidt's  "  Geschichte  der  Pddagogih,"  which  is  prob- 
ably the  ablest  work  that  has  yet  been  written  on  edu- 
cational history.  From  these  works,  as  well  as  from 
other  French  and  German  authors,  a  number  of  valu- 
able passages  have  been  translated.  To  President  Ju- 
lius D.  Dreher,  of  Eoanoke  College,  who  read  this 
work,  both  in  manuscript  and  in  proof,  special  acknowl- 
edgments are  due  for  valuable  suggestions. 

F.  Y.  N.  P. 

SALEM,  VIRGINIA,  April  12,  1886, 


CONTENTS. 


INTRODUCTION 1 

I. — THE  ORIENTAL  NATIONS 9 

1.  China 9 

2.  India 15 

3.  Persia 21 

4.  The  People  of  Israel    .        .        .        .        .        .        .26 

5.  Egypt 32 

II. — THE  ANCIENT  CLASSICAL  NATIONS 37 

1.  Greece 39 

a.  Sparta 40 

&.  Pythagoras 45 

e.  Athens 49 

d.  Socrates  .        .        . 56 

e.  Plato 60 

/.  Aristotle 62 

2.  Rome 65 

a.  Cicero 71 

b.  Seneca 74 

e.  Quintilian 76 

III. — CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  BEFORE  THE  REFORMATION    .        .  80 

1.  The  Relation  of  Christianity  to  Education        .        .  80 

2.  The  Founder  of  Christianity 82 

3.  Brief  Survey  of  the  Period 86 

4.  Education  in  the  Early  Church          ..."  88 
a.  Catechetical  Schools                              .       .        .91 


CONTENTS. 
XVill 

PACK 

5.  Education  during  the  Middle  Ages       . 

a.  Monastic  Schools    .  '  1Q3 

6.  Cathedral  and  Parochial  Schoo  •  ^ 

c.  Charlemagne  .  106 

d.  Secular  Education .        .  '  1Q7 

e.  Knightly  Education       .  '  uo 
/.  Burgher  Schools     .  111 
a.  Female  Education  .  '  \\% 
h.  Brethren  of  the  Common  Life  •  ^ 
i.  The  Scientific  Spirit       . 

j.  Mohammedan  Learning  '.  ^_ 

k.  Rise  of  the  Universities.        .        •  '  m 

1.  Summary         • 

IV.-EDITCATIO*     FKOM     THE     REFORMATION    TO^  THE    PRESENT   ^ 

1E  The  Revival  of '  Learning  an«l  the  Humanists         .  120 
a.  Agricola       .-..••••'  ^  138 

ft.  Reuchlin       .  '_  131 

c.  Erasmus       . 

2.  The  Relation  of  the  Reformation  to  Education 
a.  The  Condition  of  the  Church      . 

b   Principles  of  Protestantism 

.  14( 

3.  The  Reformers         .  ^  14( 

a.  Luther 14! 

6.  Melanchthon        . 

c.  Zwingli  and  Calvin       . 

4.  Abstract  Theological  Education  (1530-1700) . 

a.  John  Sturm 

b.  The  Universities 

c.  The  Jesuits 

5.  Reaction  against  Abstract  Theological  Educatio 

a.  Montaigne '  179 

b.  Bacon -^gg 

c.  Milton '  -194 

d.  Ratich 200 

e.  Comenius 


CONTENTS. 


XIX 


/.  Locke   ..,,.... 
g.  Jansenism     
h.  FSnelon        

PAGE 

.  213 
.224 
227 
234 

j.  Pietism  
k.  Francke        

.  239 
.  240 

6.  Abstract  Human  Education 

.  247 

a.  Rousseau      

.  249 

b.  The  Philanthropin       .... 
c.  The  Humanists     .        .        . 

.  256 
.  261 

7.  Education  in  the  Nineteenth  Century 
a.  Pestalozzi     

.  266 
.  266 

b.  Froebel  and  the  Kindergarten    . 
c.  Contemporary  Education     . 
d.  Germany      
e.  France  

.  278 
.  288 
.  291 
.  296 

/.  England        
g.  United  States       

.  302 
.  306 

(1.)  Colonial  Period  .... 
(2.)  National  Period  .... 
h.  Conclusion  

.  308 
.  314 
.  325 

HISTORY   OF  EDUCATION. 


INTRODUCTION. 

THE  principles  which  should  control  educational 
methods  are  to  be  sought  in  human  nature.  This  truth, 
which  long  remained  unnoticed  or  inoperative,  has  been 
emphasized  by  the  educational  reformers  of  modern 
times.  "Everything  should  be  done  in  the  order  of 
nature  "  is  one  of  the  maxims  of  Comenius.  Pestalozzi 
has  beautifully  said  :  "  Sound  education  stands  before 
me  symbolized  by  a  tree  planted  near  fertilizing  waters. 
A  little  seed,  which  contains  the  design  of  the  tree,  its 
form  and  proportions,  is  placed  in  the  soil.  See  how  it 
germinates  and  expands  into  trunk,  branches,  leaves, 
flowers,  and  fruit !  The  whole  tree  is  an  uninterrupted 
chain  of  organic  parts,  the  plan  of  which  existed  in  its 
seed  and  root.  Man  is  similar  to  the  tree.  In  the  new- 
born child  are  hidden  those  faculties  which  are  to  un- 
fold during  life.  The  individual  and  separate  organs  of 
his  being  form  themselves  gradually  into  an  harmonic 
whole,  and  build  up  humanity  in  the  image  of  God." 

The  various  faculties  or  capacities  which  await  de- 
velopment in  the  child  are  classed  as  physical,  mental, 
and  moral.  To  meet  the  ends  of  life,  the  body  must 
l 


HISTORY   OF  EDUCATION. 


grow,  the  mind  be  developed,  and  the  moral  nature 
trained.     These  powers,  though  at  first  existing  in  a 
germinal  condition,  contain  within  themselves  large  pos- 
sibilities and  a  strong  impulse  toward  development, 
helpless  infant  may  become  a  Newton.     The  germinal 
powers  start  spontaneously  into  activity;  the  limbs 
come  restlessly  active,  the  senses  open  to  objects  of 
external  world,  and  cognition  has  its  beginning, 
growth   or  development,  which  gradually  transforms 
childhood  into  youth,  and  youth  into  manhood,  goes  on 
according  to  definite  laws,  and  maybe  sadly  thwarted 
by  neglect,  or  greatly  promoted  by  judicious  care. 

During  a  considerable  period  of  his  early  life  man  it 
helpless  and  ignorant;  he  is  without  the  strength  and 
knowledge  necessary  to  maintain  an  independent  ex: 
ence.    It  is  this  fact  that  renders  education  a  necess 
The  processes  of  physical  and  mental  growth  must  be 
assisted  and  directed  during  the  formative  periods 
childhood  and  youth.    This  is  the  function  of  education. 
Without  its  fostering  care,  no  generation  can  be  adc 
quately  fitted  for  the  duties  of  life  and  the  achievei 
of  a  worthy  destiny. 

The  end  of  education  is  complete  human  devel 
ment.     This  is  attained  by  leading  the  several  parts 
man's  nature  to  a  harmonious  realization  of  their  high 
est  possibilities.     The  finished  result  is  a  noble  mail 
hood,  whose  highest  exemplification,  the  ideal 
culture,  is  Christ.     The  elements  of  this  manhood  5 
healthy  body,  a  clear  and  well-informed  intellect,  sensi 
bilities  quickly  susceptible  to  every  right  feeling,  a: 
steady  will  whose  volitions  are  determined  by  res 
and  an  enlightened  conscience. 


INTRODUCTION.  3 

In  support  of  this  conception  of  education,  Prof. 
Huxley  has  strikingly  said :  "  That  man,  I  think,  has 
had  a  liberal  education  who  has  been  so  trained  in  his 
youth  that  his  body  is  the  ready  servant  of  his  will,  and 
does  with  ease  and  pleasure  all  the  work  that,  as  a 
mechanism,  it  is  capable  of ;  whose  intellect  is  a  clear, 
cold  logic-engine,  with  all  its  parts  of  equal  strength, 
and  in  smooth  working  order ;  ready,  like  a  steam-en- 
gine, to  be  turned  to  any  kind  of  work,  and  spin  the 
gossamers  as  well  as  forge  the  anchors  of  the  mind; 
whose  mind  is  stored  with  a  knowledge  of  the  great  and 
fundamental  truths  of  Nature,  and  of  the  laws  of  her 
operations ;  one  who,  no  stunted  ascetic,  is  full  of  life 
and  fire,  but  whose  passions  are  trained  to  come  to  heel 
by  a  vigorous  will,  the  servant  of  a  tender  conscience ; 
who  has  learned  to  love  all  beauty,  whether  of  nature 
or  art,  to  hate  all  vileness,  and  to  respect  others  as  him- 
self." 

Thus,  in  its  essential  nature,  education  aims  at  de- 
veloping a  noble  type  of  manhood ;  but  it  has  also  an 
external  relation.  Man  has  various  labors  and  duties  to 
perform  in  the  world,  which  require  special  training, 
and  a  wide  range  of  knowledge.  Childhood  and  youth 
are  the  periods  of  preparation.  Hence,  it  is  clear  that 
education,  both  in  its  subjects  and  methods  of  instruc- 
tion, should  have  some  reference  to  the  demands  of  prac- 
tical life.  Human  development  should  be  combined 
with  practical  wisdom ;  the  school  should  be  the  natural 
introduction  into  active  life.  This  is  the  view  of  Mil- 
ton, who  has  said,  "I  call  a  complete  and  generous 
education  that  which  fits  a  man  to  perform  justly,  skill- 
fully, and  magnanimously  all  the  offices,  both  private 


4.  HISTORY   OF  EDUCATION. 

and  public,  of  peace  and  war."     Herbert  Spencer  also 
has  presented  the  same  view  very  forcibly.     "  How  to 
live,"  he  says,  "that  is  the  essential  question  for  us. 
Not  how  to  live  in  the  mere  material  sense  only,  but 
in  the  widest  sense.     The  general  problem  which  com- 
prehends every  special  problem  is  the  right  ruling  of 
conduct  in  all  directions  under  all  circumstances.     In 
what  way  to  treat  the  body ;  in  what  way  to  treat  the 
mind ;  in  what  way  to  manage  our  affairs ;  in  what  way 
to  bring  up  a  family ;  in  what  way  to  behave  as  a  citi- 
zen ;  in  what  way  to  utilize  all  those  sources  of  happi- 
ness which  Nature  supplies ;  how  to  use  all  our  faculties 
to  the  greatest  advantage  of  ourselves  and  others ;  how 
to  live  completely.     And  this  being  the  great  thing 
needful  for  us  to  learn,  is,  by  consequence,  the  great 
thing  which  education  has  to  teach.     To  prepare  us  for 
complete  living  is  the  function  which  education  has  to 
discharge ;  and  the  only  rational  mode  of  judging  of  any 
educational  course  is  to  judge  in  what  degree  it  dis- 
charges such  function." 

There  are  two  elements,  logically  distinguishable  but 
practically  inseparable,  entering  into  education.  These 
are  development  and  the  acquisition  of  knowledge. 
Without  development,  the  individual  lacks  strength  to 
grapple  with  the  problems  of  life ;  and  without  knowl- 
edge, he  remains  a  cipher  in  society.  The  great  law 
underlying  physical  and  mental  development  is  self- 
activity.  Every  truly  educated  man  is  self-made.  The 
various  functions  of  the  mind,  whether  perceiving,  feel- 
ing, judging,  or  willing,  must  for  a  long  period  be  called 
into  frequent  exercise  in  connection  with  objects,  facts, 
relations,  and  truths,  in  order  to  become  active,  obe- 


INTRODUCTION. 


dient,  and  strong.  The  basis  of  this  activity  is  knowl- 
edge, which  is  as  necessary  for  the  development  of  the 
mind  as  food  is  for  the  growth  of  the  body.  "  As  food 
is  indispensable  to  physical  growth,"  says  Johonnot,  "  so 
without  knowledge  the  mind  can  not  grow.  While  the 
mind,  from  the  first,  possesses  all  the  germs  of  mental 
power,  it  is  the  appropriation  of  knowledge  alone  that 
converts  its  latent  and  apparently  passive  capacities  into 
active  capabilities."  Education  is  not  creative ;  it  can 
not  give  what  Nature  has  withheld.  It  is  limited  by  the 
pupil's  individuality,  which  it  can  ennoble,  but  not  radi- 
cally change. 

In  some  form  or  other,  education  is  as  old  as  our 
race.  According  to  Holy  Writ,  the  first  human  pair 
were  the  subjects  of  divine  tuition.  Among  all  peo- 
ples, barbarous  as  well  as  civilized,  each  generation  has 
received  a  special  training  for  its  subsequent  career. 
Where  the  form  of  civilization  has  been  low,  education 
has  been  narrow  and  defective.  Uncivilized  communi- 
ties do  scarcely  more  than  strengthen  the  body  and  cul- 
tivate the  senses.  Among  no  two  nations  of  antiquity 
have  the  theory  and  practice  of  education  been  the  same. 
It  has  varied  with  the  different  social,  political,  and  re- 
ligious conditions  of  the  people  and  the  physical  charac- 
teristics of  the  country.  But,  however  varied  or  imper- 
fect its  form,  education  has  existed  among  all  nations. 

It  is  a  profound  thought  of  German  philosophy  that 
God  is  leading  the  world,  through  a  gradual  though  not 
uninterrupted  development,  to  greater  intelligence,  free- 
dom, and  goodness.  Like  the  individual,  our  race  as  a 
whole  has  to  pass  through  the  successive  periods  of 
childhood,  youth,  and  maturity.  Each  succeeding  pe- 


Q  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION. 

riod  inherits  the  accumulated  wisdom  of  the  preceding 
one,  and  adds  new  treasures  of  its  own.  After  the 
lapse  of  many  ages  of  striving  and  conflict,  mankind 
has  reached  a  stage  of  development  among  enlightened 
nations  that  seems  to  accord  with  the  estate  of  manhood. 
Intelligence,  freedom,  morality,  and  religion,  though  far 
from  being  universal,  prevail  to  a  degree  unprecedented 
in  the  past.  Human  progress  is  an  evident  fact. 

With  improvement  in  other  human  interests,  there 
has  been  unmistakable  progress  in  education.  Indeed, 
the  ancient  world,  as  we  shall  soon  see,  never  succeeded 
in  producing  a  correct  and  complete  theory  of  educa- 
tion. If  a  great  thinker  now  and  then  approximated 
the  truth,  his  voice  was  lost  upon  the  heedless  multi- 
tude. The  practice  could  hardly  be  better  than  the 
theory.  Hence  we  shall  find  that  education  was  always 
defective,  usually  laying  stress  upon  some  particular 
phase  of  human  culture,  to  the  neglect  of  others.  Some- 
times the  physical  was  emphasized,  sometimes  the  in- 
tellectual, sometimes  the  moral,  sometimes  the  religious  ; 
but  never  all  together  in  perfect  symmetry.  It  has  been 
reserved  for  the  nineteenth  century,  so  distinguished 
for  its  many-sided  advancement,  to  realize  an  education 
which  leaves  no  part  of  man's  nature  neglected. 

We  are  now  prepared  to  understand  the  nature  of 
the  history  of  education.  It  is  an  exhibition  of  what 
has  been  thought  and  done  in  all  ages  and  countries  in 
reference  to  training  the  young.  It  sets  forth  the  prin- 
ciples and  methods  which  have  prevailed  at  various 
periods  and  in  different  lands.  It  gives  an  account  of 
the  prominent  educators  whose  theories  and  methods 
have  exerted  a  noteworthy  influence  upon  educational 


INTRODUCTION. 


development.  It  includes  an  inquiry  into  the  social, 
religious,  and  political  conditions  which  have  determined 
the  peculiar  form  of  education,  and  traces  the  line  of 
educational  progress  from  its  humble  beginnings  down 
to  the  precious  heritage  of  the  present. 

The  history  of  education  is  a  valuable  study.  Edu- 
cation stands  in  close  relation  to  the  civilization  of  a 
people.  It  is,  at  the  same  time,  both  a  cause  and  an 
.effect.  Educational  history,  in  setting  forth  the  influ- 
ences determining  the  peculiar  character  of  education 
in  any  country,  becomes  to  some  extent  a  philosophy  of 
history  in  general.  As  such  it  is  a  profound  study. 
"  The  education  of  a  people,"  says  Dr.  Henry  Barnard, 
"bears  a  constant  and  most  pre-eminently  influential 
relation  to  its  attainments  and  excellences— physical, 
mental,  and  moral.  The  national  education  is  at  once  a 
cause  and  an  effect  of  the  national  character ;  and  ac- 
cordingly, the  history  of  education  affords  the  only  ready 
and  perfect  key  to  the  history  of  the  human  race,  and 
of  each  nation  in  it — an  unfailing  standard  for  estimat- 
ing its  advance  or  retreat  upon  the  line  of  human  prog- 
ress." 

To  speak  more  specifically,  the  study  of  educational 
history,  by  bringing  the  whole  field  within  the  range  of 
our  vision,  broadens  our  views  in  regard  to  education. 
By  acquainting  us  with  the  views  and  methods  of  the 
past,  it  spares  us  the  cost  of  repeating  experiments  and 
mistakes.  It  gives  the  origin  of  present  educational  sys- 
tems, and  shows  what  is  correct  in  principle  and  valu- 
able in  method.  It  inspires  educational  workers  with 
greater  zeal  by  presenting  the  examples  of  self-sacrificing 
and  illustrious  teachers.  And  it  is  a  necessary  study  in 


8  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION. 

order  to  complete  the  comprehensive  scheme  included 
in  what  is  properly  called  the  science  of  education. 

Asia  is  the  birthplace  of  the  human  race.  The 
march  of  progress,  following  the  course  of  the  sun,  has 
been  westward  through  Europe  to  America,  which  com- 
pletes the  circle  of  the  globe.  Here  the  great  problems 
of  religion,  science,  government,  and  education  will 
probably  receive  their  final  solution.  Following  the 
course  of  human  progress,  the  history  of  education  nat- 
urally divides  itself  as  follows : 

I.  The  Oriental  countries,  including  China,  India, 
Persia,  Palestine,  and  Egypt. 

II.  The  ancient  classical  nations,  Greece  and  Home. 

III.  The  Christian  education  of  Europe  and  Amer- 
ica, which  is  divided  into — 1.  The  period  before  the 
Reformation ;  and,  2.  The  period  after  the  Reformation. 

In  this  classification  no  account  is  taken  of  uncivil- 
ized peoples,  since  education  with  them  consists  almost 
exclusively  in  training  the  body  for  war  and  the  chase. 
Their  education  is  thus  too  primitive  in  its  character  to 
bring  it  within  the  scope  of  our  present  undertaking. 


I. 

THE  ORIENTAL  NATIONS. 

A  STRIKING  fact,  which  throws  great  light  upon 
Eastern  education,  is  to  be  noted  in  reference  to  Oriental 
life.  The  individual  there  counts  for  nothing.  A 
despotic  external  authority  controls  his  destiny.  Edu- 
cation does  not  aim  to  develop  a  perfect  man  or  woman, 
but  to  prepare  its  subjects  for  their  place  in  the  estab- 
lished order  of  things.  It  does  not  aim  to  beautify  the 
stone,  but  simply  to  fit  it  for  its  place  in  the  wall.  The 
source  of  this  all-controlling  authority  varies  in  the 
different  countries.  In  China  it  is  fossilized  tradition ; 
in  India,  caste ;  in  Persia,  the  state ;  among  the  Jews, 
the  theocracy.  In  all  the  Oriental  countries,  this  ex- 
ternal authority  determines  the  character  of  education ; 
and,  if  this  idea  is  firmly  grasped,  it  will  facilitate  a 
thorough  understanding  of  the  educational  systems  of 
the  East. 

1.  CHINA. 

The  Chinese  Empire — that  magnificent  country  which 
comprises  a  fourth  part  of  the  population  of  the  globe — 
first  claims  our  attention.  Its  people  belong  to  the 
Mongolian  race,  whose  genius  is  shown  by  the  early  in- 
vention of  paper,  printing,  gunpowder,  and  the  mari- 
ner's compass.  Their  character  presents  many  points  of 


10  THE   ORIENTAL  NATIONS. 

interest.  They  are  industrious  and  economical ;  and  in 
the  relations  of  every-day  life  they  are  polite  and  kind. 
They  honor  their  parents,  love  their  children,  and  re- 
spect those  in  authority.  Possessed  of  great  patience, 
they  endure  oppression  and  suffering  without  a  murmur. 
On  the  other  hand,  they  are  destitute  of  deep  moral 
convictions.  They  are  hypocritical  and  dishonest ;  and, 
once  in  authority,  they  are  apt  to  become  tyrannical, 
and  even  cruel.  Their  wives  are  held  in  contempt- 
Destitute  of  hope  beyond  the  grave,  and  incapable  of 
spiritual  delights,  their  aspirations  are  contined  to 
earthly  objects.  They  are  gross  in  their  pleasures ;  and 
to  acquire  wealth,  live  in  ease,  and  fill  some  public  office, 
are  the  highest  aims  of  their  ambition. 

Though  one  of  the  oldest  nations  in  the  world,  the 
Chinese  have  for  many  ages  made  but  little  progress  in 
civilization.  They  are  very  much  the  same  to-day  that 
they  were  more  than  two  thousand  years  ago.  The  col- 
lective life  of  the  people  has  become  petrified  in  fixed 
forms.  Their  customs,  the  relations  of  the  various 
classes  of  society,  the  methods  of  business  and  labor,  the 
administration  of  justice,  and  the  whole  circle  of  thought, 
have  all  been  stereotyped.  They  are  practically  un- 
changeable. 

Notwithstanding  its  evident  imperfections,  the  Chi- 
nese regard  their  civilization  with  great  complacency. 
They  are  the  "  celestials,"  and  the  rest  of  mankind  are 
barbarians.  The  preservation  of  existing  institutions  is 
an  object  of  constant  care.  All  deviation  from  tradi- 
tional customs  is  looked  upon  with  disfavor,  improve- 
ments are  hardly  tolerated,  and  the  introduction  of  for- 
eign culture  is  generally  stigmatized  as  barbarous.  With 


CHINA.  11 

such  a  national  feeling,  education  can  have  but  one  end. 
Its  object  is  to  impress  upon  each  generation  traditional 
ideas  and  customs,  and  thus  prepare  it  to  take  its  place 
naturally  in  the  established  order  of  society.  It  does 
not  aim  at  a  development  of  the  human  faculties — it  is 
simply  a  cramming  of  the  memory. 

To  education  in  this  defective  form  there  is  great 
stimulus  in  China.  "  The  importance  of  generally  in- 
structing the  people,"  says  Williams,  "was  acknowl- 
edged even  before  the  time  of  Confucius,  and  practiced 
to  a  good  degree  at  an  age  when  other  nations  in  the 
world  had  no  such  system;  and  although  in  his  day 
feudal  institutions  prevailed,  and  offices  and  rank  were 
not  attainable  in  the  same  manner  as  at  present,  yet 
magistrates  and  noblemen  deemed  it  necessary  to  be 
well  acquainted  with  their  ancient  writings.  In  the 
'Book  of  Rites'  it  is  said  'that,  for  the  purposes  of 
education  among  the  ancients,  villages  had  their  schools, 
districts  their  academies,  departments  their  colleges,  and 
principalities  their  universities.'  This,  so  far  as  we 
know,  was  altogether  superior  to  what  obtained  among 
the  Jews,  Persians,  and  Syrians  of  the  same  period." 
Education  is  forcibly  and  frequently  inculcated  in  the 
classical  Chinese  literature,  which  is  held  in  high  esteem. 
The  patronage  of  the  wealthy  makes  education  respect- 
able and  popular.  Besides,  education  opens  the  only 
road  to  political  preferment.  All  the  officers  of  the  Im- 
perial Government  are  chosen  from  among  those  who 
have  completed  a  long  course  of  study  and  passed 
through  the  ordeal  of  several  laborious  and  rigid  exam- 
inations. Every  community  supports  one  or  more,  pri- 
mary schools,  while  the  larger  towns  and  cities  have 


12  THE  ORIENTAL  NATIONS. 

academies  and  colleges.  The  teachers  are  generally 
competent,  being  prepared  for  their  work  by  a  long 
course  of  study.  The  schools  are  conducted  in  rooms 
destitute  of  comfort,  and  without  furniture,  except  the 
chair  and  table  of  the  teacher,  and  the  desks  and  seats 
furnished  by  the  pupils  themselves. 

Children  are  placed  under  the  care  of  a  teacher  at 
the  age  of  six  or  seven  years.  The  first  years  of  their 
instruction  are  devoted  to  reading  and  writing ;  and,  as 
these  are  very  difficult  to  learn,  on  account  of  the  sign- 
character  of  the  Chinese  language,  the  great  majority 
never  reach  any  higher  attainments.  The  teaching  is 
wholly  by  rote :  the  pupils  repeat  after  the  teacher  the 
names  of  the  characters  in  the  book  given  them  to  study. 
After  they  have  learned  to  pronounce  the  characters 
fluently  they  are  taught  the  meaning,  and  the  moral  les- 
sons of  the  book  are  impressed  upon  them.  An  extract 
is  given  from  the  book  first  placed  in  the  hands  of  pu- 
pils at  school : 

Men,  at  their  birth,  are  by  nature  radically  good. 

In  this,  all  approximate,  but  in  practice  widely  di- 
verge. 

If  not  educated,  the  natural  character  is  changed. 

A  course  of  education  is  made  valuable  by  close  at- 
tention. 

To  bring  up  and  not  educate  is  a  father's  error. 

To  educate  without  rigor  shows  a  teacher's  indo- 
lence. 

That  boys  should  not  learn  is  an  improper  thing. 

For  if  they  do  not  learn  in  youth,  what  will  they  do 
when  old  ? 

Gems  unwrought  can  form  nothing  useful. 

So  men  untaught  can  never  know  the  proprieties. 


CHINA.  13 

The  discipline  is  severe.  The  teacher  keeps  his  rat- 
tan or  bamboo  hanging  in  a  conspicuous  place,  and  he 
uses  scolding,  castigation,  starving,  and  imprisonment,  to 
stir  up  the  diligence  of  his  pupils  in  their  necessarily 
distasteful  tasks. 

Those  in  pursuit  of  a  higher  education  place  them- 
selves under  the  care  of  a  competent  teacher,  from 
whom  they  receive  instruction  in  the  Chinese  classics 
and  in  the  art  of  composition.  After  many  years  of 
severe  toil,  and  running  the  gantlet  of  repeated  exam- 
inations in  which  his  competitors  are  numbered  by 
thousands,  the  successful  scholar  becomes  a  member  of 
the  Imperial  Academy — a  position  that  brings  him  high 
honors  and  also  a  generous  support  from  the  royal  treas- 
ury. Henceforth  he  is  a  member  of  the  Imperial  Gov- 
ernment. 

It  is  proper  to  say  a  word  here  in  reference  to  the 
Chinese  classics,  which  form  the  basis  of  education,  to 
the  exclusion  of  all  those  studies — geography,  history, 
mathematics,  science,  and  language — which  are  deemed 
in  the  "Western  world  so  indispensable  to  a  liberal  cult- 
ure. These  classics  in  their  present  form  are  the  work 
of  Confucius,  the  most  distinguished  of  Chinese  philoso- 
phers and  teachers,  who  lived  in  the  fifth  century  be- 
fore Christ.  They  are  in  part  compilations  made  by 
him  from  older  works  and  in  part  his  own  composition. 
They  treat  chiefly  of  the  duties  of  social  and  political 
life,  though  they  are  also  in  some  measure  historical. 
"  I  teach  you  nothing,"  says  Confucius,  "  but  what  you 
might  learn  yourselves — viz.,  the  observance  of  the  fun- 
damental laws  of  relation  between  sovereign  and  sub- 
ject, father  and  child,  and  husband  and  wife,  and  the 


14  THE  ORIENTAL  NATIONS. 

five  cardinal  virtues,  universal  charity,  impartial  justice, 
conformity  to  established  ceremonies  and  usages,  recti- 
tude of  heart  and  mind,  and  pure  sincerity."  He  thus 
speaks  of  filial  duty  in  particular:  "There  are  three 
thousand  crimes  to  which  one  or  another  of  the  five 
kinds  of  punishment  is  attached  as  a  penalty,  and  of 
these  no  one  is  greater  than  disobedience  to  parents. 
When  ministers  exercise  control  over  the  monarch,  then 
there  is  no  supremacy ;  when  the  maxims  of  the  sages 
are  set  aside,  then  the  law  is  abrogated ;  and  so  those 
who  disregard  filial  duty  are  as  though  they  had  no  par- 
ents. These  three  evils  prepare  the  way  for  universal 
rebellion."  The  teaching  of  Confucius  was  a  system  of 
natural  morality,  from  which  the  ideas  of  a  personal 
God  and  future  life  were  excluded.  "While  it  has 
sapped  the  foundations  of  all  religion,  it  has  fostered  a 
painstaking  attention  to  outward  ceremony. 

To  sum  up  the  results  of  this  inquiry,  the  whole  sys- 
tem of  Chinese  education  confines  the  mind  within  a 
narrow  circle  of  ideas,  perpetuates  the  fixed  customs  of 
the  people,  encourages  outward  morality  and  ceremony, 
and  renders  progress  well-nigh  impossible.  In  the  lan- 
guage of  an  able  author  already  quoted :  "  Owing  to  this 
undue  attention  to  the  classics,  the  minds  of  scholars  are 
not  symmetrically  trained,  and  they  disparage  other 
branches  of  literature  which  do  not  directly  advance 
this  great  end.  Every  department  of  letters,  except 
jurisprudence,  history,  and  official  statistics,  is  dises- 
teemed  in  comparison;  and  the  literary  graduate  of 
fourscore  will  be  found  deficient  in  most  branches  of 
general  learning,  ignorant  of  hundreds  of  common 
things  and  events  in  his  national  history,  which  the 


INDIA.  15 

merest  school-boy  in  the  "Western  world  would  be 
ashamed  not  to  know  in  his.  This  course  of  instruction 
does  not  form  well-balanced  minds,  but  it  imbues  the 
future  rulers  of  the  land  with  a  full  understanding  of 
the  principles  on  which  they  are  to  govern,  and  the 
policy  of  the  supreme  power  in  using  those  principles 
to  consolidate  its  own  authority."  As  adapted  to  per- 
petuate an  exclusive  national  existence,  the  Chinese  sys- 
tem may  not  inappropriately  be  designated  ancestral 
education. 

2.  INDIA. 

The  consideration  of  education  in  India  ought  to 
possess  the  greater  interest  for  us,  since  the  Hindoos  are 
of  the  same  blood  as  ourselves.  As  a  branch  of  the 
great  Aryan  or  Indo-European  family  of  nations,  they 
moved  southward  from  their  Central  Asiatic  home,  some 
two  thousand  years  before  Christ,  into  the  vast  peninsula 
which  extends  from  the  Himalaya  Mountains  into  the 
Indian  Ocean.  There  they  brought  into  subjection  the 
swarthier  aborigines ;  and,  under  the  influence  of  the 
favorable  soil  and  climate,  they  developed  into  a  very 
numerous  people.  The  wealth  of  their  country  has  al- 
ways been  a  temptation  to  the  avarice  of  other  nations. 
The  inoifensive  character  of  the  people  has  rendered 
them  an  easy  prey.  The  Greeks,  the  Mohammedans,  the 
Portuguese,  and  the  Dutch  have  successively  reached 
out  a  covetous  hand  after  the  natural  and  artificial  treas- 
ures of  the  country.  Last  of  all,  the  English,  with  their 
insatiable  thirst  for  empire,  have  brought  the  whole 
peninsula  under  their  sway,  thereby  adding  a  population 
of  one  hundred  and  ninety  millions  to  the  British  do- 


IQ  THE  ORIENTAL  NATIONS. 

minion,  and  securing  for  the  Queen  the  additional  title 
of  Empress  of  India.  All  these  foreign  influences  have 
wrought  changes  in  the  social,  political,  and  religious 
condition  of  the  people  of  India ;  and,  at  present,  all  the 
ancient  usages  and  laws  are  in  a  process  of  rapid  disso- 
lution. 

The  language  of  the  ancient  Hindoos  was  Sanskrit, 
which,  as  nearly  related  to  the  Latin,  Greek,  English, 
and  other  Indo-European  languages,  is  of  especial  inter- 
est to  the  philologist.  Though  the  Sanskrit  has  given 
place  to  dialects,  as  did  the  Latin  after  the  fall  of  the 
Eoman  Empire,  it  is  still  the  learned  language  of  the 
Brahmans.  This  language  is  the  repository  of  a  litera- 
ture of  great  antiquity  and  surprising  magnitude.  The 
"  Yeda,"  a  collection  of  religious  hymns,  was  compiled 
more  than  a  thousand  years  before  Christ.  The  "  Maha- 
bharata "  is  an  epic  poem,  whose  length  is  more  than 
double  that  of  the  "  Iliad,"'  "  ^neid,"  and  "  Paradise 
Lost"  combined. 

The  prevailing  religion  is  Brahmanism.  For  the 
more  intelligent  classes,  this  religion  is  pantheistic,  and 
closely  resembles  modern  philosophic  pantheism  in  Ger- 
many. According  to  Brahmanism,  God  is  an  uncon- 
scious but  alt-pervading  spiritual  presence  which  has  un- 
folded from  within  himself  the  material  and  visible  uni- 
verse. As  God  is  thus  believed  to  be  in  everything, 
this  religion  easily  and  naturally  degenerates  among  the 
masses  into  polytheism,  in  which  the  various  objects  of 
nature  are  worshiped  as  divinities. 

The  people  present  strange  contradictions  of  char- 
acter. They  are  gentle,  docile,  polite,  industrious,  and 
faithful  in  service;  at  the  same  time  they  are  de- 


INDIA.  17 

ceitful,  jealous,  ungrateful,  avaricious,  and  full  of 
flattery.  They  are  divided  into  four  principal  classes 
or  castes:  The  Brahmans,  or  holy  teachers;  the 
KshatviyaSj  or  soldiers  and  kings  of  the  nation;  the 
Vaisyas,  or  farmers  and  traders;  and  the  /Sudras, 
or  servants  of  the  three  other  classes.  The  three 
higher  castes  all  enjoy  peculiar  rights  and  privileges, 
though  the  Brahmans  possess  the  greatest  influence,  and 
are  the  repositories  of  learning  for  the  whole  people.  Of 
the  relative  position  of  the  several  castes,  Manu,  the  re- 
puted author  of  the  most  celebrated  law-book  of  the  an- 
cient Hindoos,  says :  "  Whatever  exists  in  the  universe 
is  all  in  effect,  though  not  in  form,  the  wealth  of  the 
Brahman  ;  since  the  Brahman  is  entitled  to  it  all  by  his 
primogeniture  and  eminence  of  birth.  .  .  .  The  first 
part  of  a  Brahman's  compound  name  should  indicate 
holiness ;  of  a  Kshatriya's,  power ;  of  a  Yaisya's,  wealth ; 
and  of  a  Sudra's,  contempt."  Of  the  caste  system  as  a 
whole,  a  writer,  who  had  ample  opportunities  of  know- 
ing, has  said :  "  It  has  made  the  Hindoos  contented  with 
their  lot — whether  good  or  bad,  high  or  low — and  in 
doing  so  has  provided  a  kind  of  universal  happiness, 
which,  if  not  of  the  highest  kind,  was  better  than  none. 
Even  now  as  it  is  passing  away,  and  justly  so,  we  have 
firm  faith  that  the  God  of  all  mankind,  who  permitted 
this  wondrous  institution  to  grow  up  and  flourish  for 
thousands  of  years,  will  overrule  it  for  good." 

The  caste  system  of  India  is  the  controlling  influ- 
ence in  education.  Each  individual  is  born  into  one  of 
the  four  principal  castes,  whose  usages  he  is  compelled 
to  learn  and  observe.  As  these  are  very  numerous,,  de- 
scending into  insignificant  details  in  daily  life,  such  in- 


18  THE  ORIENTAL  NATIONS. 

struction  forms  the  principal  part  of  the  child's  educa- 
tion. The  Sudras  and  females  are  excluded  from  all 
other  kinds  of  instruction. 

At  the  usual  age  of  six  or  seven  years  the  child  is 
sent  to  school.  This  is  presided  over  by  a  Brahman, 
who  regards  it  a  disgrace  to  receive  a  stipulated  salary, 
and  who  is  remunerated  by  voluntary  gifts  from  his 
patrons.  These  gifts  range  from  mere  trifles  to  consid- 
erable estates;  but,  upon  the  whole,  leave  the  teacher 
poorly  paid.  He  is  held  in  high  honor,  and  pupils 
render  him  greater  reverence  than  they  show  to  their 
parents.  School  is  usually  kept  in  the  open  air.  under 
the  shadow  of  a  friendly  tree;  but,  in  case  of  bad 
weather,  it  is  transferred  to  a  thatched  shed,  or  other 
covered  building.  Along  with  ceremonial  usages  and 
moral  instruction,  reading,  writing,  and  arithmetic  are 
taught.  The  first  exercises  in  writing  are  in  the  sand. 
The  teachers  are  aided  not  only  by  regular  assistants, 
but  also  by  the  more  mature  pupils  of  the  school.  The 
lessons  are  learned  aloud  by  the  whole  body  of  pupils  at 
once.  The  discipline,  in  the  main,  may  be  regarded  as 
mild.  It  is  only  after  admonition  has  failed  that  bodily 
pain  is  inflicted  by  the  rod,  by  placing  the  pupil  in  an 
uncomfortable  position,  or  by  pouring  cold  water  upon 
him — a  mode  of  punishment  peculiar  to  India. 

The  following  extracts  from  a  description  written  by 
a  Hindoo,  present  some  interesting  details  of  the  old- 
style  school : 

An  hour  before  closing  the  school  the  pupils  are  all 
made  to  stand  up  in  a  line,  and,  with  their  hands  applied 
to  their  hearts,  they  repeat  the  multiplication-table,  the 
alphabet,  and  the  sacred  hymns  or  slokas  /  at  the  end  of 


INDIA.  19 

each  one  of  the  last  their  hands  are  raised  to  their  fore- 
heads, and  their  bodies  bowed  in  reverence  to  the  god 
in  whose  honor  it  was  said.  The  master  then  instructs 
them  in  a  long  and  tedious  catalogue  of  frivolous  duties 
to  be  discharged  in  their  houses ;  to  which  they  all  assent 
with  a  loud  "  Yes,  yes ! "  After  this  they  prostrate  them- 
selves before  the  teacher,  and  are  dismissed  to  their 
respective  homes.  The  teacher  must  be  a  Brahman. 
The  wealthy  and  respectable  will  never  condescend  to 
have  their  children  educated  by  one  of  a  lower  caste. 

The  system  of  education  practiced  in  these  schools 
is  very  defective,  and  the  children  make  but  little  prog- 
ress ;  they  take  a  month  or  more  to  learn  the  alphabet, 
a  year  or  two  to  learn  to  read,  and  still  longer  to  write. 
Much  time  is  wasted  also  in  learning  useless  arithmetical 
tables.  The  master  is  slothful,  and,  like  all  Brahmans, 
fond  of  sleeping  by  day.  In  the  afternoon,  after  the 
boys  have  collected  for  work,  he  considers  his  duties 
over  till  five,  and  so  indulges  in  a  sound  sleep.  Mean- 
while the  pupils  must  get  along  as  best  they  can ;  but 
the  teacher  must  not  be  disturbed. 

The  teacher,  however,  is  great  on  the  subject  of 
caste — on  what  should  be  eaten,  what  abstained  from ; 
on  idolizing  the  Brahmans  and  avoiding  the  pariahs; 
on  his  genealogy,  his  rights,  his  privileges,  and  on  the 
mean  origin  and  low  position  of  other  castes.  He  is 
ever  eloquent  on  the  necessity  of  feeding,  clothing,  and 
sheltering  Brahmans,  and  of  subscribing  to  the  marriage 
of  their  sons  and  daughters ;  and  is  ever  mourning,  in 
melancholy  terms,  that  the  native  rule  has  departed,  and 
with  it  the  rajahs,  who,  supplying  all  the  wants  of  the 
Brahmans,  left  them  nothing  to  do  but  to  eat,  drink,  and 
sleep.* 

Higher  education  in  India  has  received,  from  ancient 

*  "  Every-day  Life  in  India,"  by  Rev.  A.  D.  Rowe.  In  other  particu- 
lars the  description  from  which  these  extracts  are  taken  seems  io  be 
overdrawn. 


20  THE  ORIENTAL  NATIONS. 

times,  careful  attention.  Although  the  higher  institu- 
tions were  destined  chiefly  for  the  Brahmans,  they  were 
open  also  to  students  from  the  second  and  third  castes. 
The  subjects  pursued  constituted  an  extensive  curricu- 
lum, and  included  grammar,  mathematics,  history,  po- 
etry, philosophy,  astronomy,  medicine,  and  law.  This 
course,  which  required  twelve  years  for  its  completion, 
was  pursued  in  its  whole  extent  only  by  the  Brahmans. 
The  students  of  the  warrior  caste,  from  which  the  civil 
officers  were  chosen,  and  of  the  trading  or  agricultural 
caste,  pursued  only  partial  courses,  with  immediate  ref- 
erence to  the  wants  of  practical  life.  In  the  science  of 
mathematics,  the  Hindoos  have  made  noteworthy  prog- 
ress, and  have  placed  the  rest  of  mankind  under  obliga- 
tion for  their  development  of  this  branch  of  knowledge. 
In  the  system  of  India  no  provision  is  made  for 
physical  education.  The  Hindoo  is  naturally  averse  to 
physical  exertion.  A  life  made  up  of  eating,  drinking, 
and  sleeping  is  his  ideal  of  happiness.  He  does  not 
feel  that  exuberant  vitality  which  makes  mere  existence 
a  conscious  enjoyment,  and  wrestling  with  difficulties  a 
positive  pleasure.  This  is  a  blessing  reserved  for  the 
hardier  children  of  the  "West.  The  religious  education 
lacks  the  conception  of  a  conscious,  personal  God ;  and, 
in  practice,  religion  has  degenerated  into  a  set  of  puerile 
observances.  The  highest  religious  aspiration  is  to  be 
absorbed  into  the  great,  unconscious  world-spirit.  This 
ideal  leads  to  an  intensely  selfish  subjectivity,  which 
violates,  by  its  idle  dreaminess,  our  fundamental  duties 
to  God  and  man.  The  intellectual  education  of  the 
Hindoos  is  not  wholly  undeserving  of  commendation. 
By  nature  they  are  a  contemplative  people,  and  this 


PERSIA.  21 

natural  tendency  is  constantly  fostered  by  their  religion. 
But,  however  subtile  their  intellectual  operations  may 
be,  the  Hindoos  are  wanting  in  that  strong  projective 
force  that  is  necessary  to  subdue  Nature  and  lift  the 
masses  to  a  high  degree  of  civilization.  The  name 
given  to  the  system  of  India  is  caste  education. 

3.  PERSIA. 

Persia  occupies  an  important  place  in  history.  It 
attained  its  highest  point  of  greatness  under  Cyrus,  who 
freed  it  from  the  dominion  of  the  Medes,  and  elevated 
it  into  a  mighty  empire.  At  this  period,  Persia  was  the 
foremost  nation  of  the  world,  not  only  in  power,  but 
also  in  civilization.  In  education  it  surpassed  both  in 
theory  and  practice  the  other  Asiatic  nations. 

The  religion  of  Persia,  founded  by  Zoroaster  in  the 
sixth  century  before  Christ,  is  interesting  in  itself,  and 
also  in  its  relation  to  education.  Nowhere,  if  we  except 
the  Jews,  was  this  relation  closer  than  among  the  an- 
cient Persians.  Zoroaster  discovered  a  dualism  running 
through  all  nature.  The  contrast  between  light  and 
darkness,  fruitfulness  and  barrenness,  useful  and  hurt- 
ful animals,  fortune  and  misfortune,  life  and  death,  led 
him  to  conceive  of  two  spiritual  beings,  the  one  good 
and  the  other  bad,  who  divide  the  world  into  hostile 
kingdoms.  At  the  head  of  the  kingdom  of  light  is 
Ormuzd,  whose  symbol  is  light;  at  the  head  of  the 
other  is  Ahriman,  whose  symbol  is  darkness.  In  the 
end,  the  kingdom  of  good  will  prevail ;  and  it  is  the 
duty  of  every  man  to  contribute  to  this  triumph.  He 
aids  in  this  work  by  cultivating  the  soil,  caring  for 


22  THE  ORIENTAL  NATIONS. 

herds,  educating  children,  maintaining  physical  and 
moral  purity,  and  opposing  whatever  is  evil  and  hurtful 
in  the  world. 

As  in  all  Asiatic  nations,  the  women  were  slavishly 
subordinate,  and  excluded  from  the  advantages  of  edu- 
cation. Every  morning  the  wife  was  required  to  kneel 
at  the  feet  of  her  husband  and  ask  nine  times,  "  What 
do  you  wish  that  I  should  do  ? "  And  having  received 
his  reply,  she  must  humbly  withdraw  to  obey  his  com- 
mands. Children  were  objects  of  parental  pride ;  and 
as  they  were  looked  on  as  the  source  of  the  future  power 
and  prosperity  of  the  state,  the  king  was  accustomed  to 
show  special  favors  to  the  heads  of  the  largest  families. 
The  utmost  care  was  exercised  in  the  training  of  chil- 
dren. Up  to  the  age  of  seven,  they  were  left  beneath 
the  parental  roof  under  the  care  of  the  mother ;  but 
after  that  age  they  were  regarded  as  belonging  to  the 
state,  and  were  educated  in  public  institutions.  Till  the 
age  of  fifteen  this  education  was  physical  and  moral. 
The  body  was  strengthened  and  hardened  by  temperate 
habits  in  eating  and  drinking,  by  gymnastic  and  military 
exercises,  and  exposure  to  heat  and  cold.  The  moral 
nature  of  the  child  was  trained  with  assiduous  attention. 
As  far  as  possible,  it  was  preserved  from  contact  with 
vice,  while  the  virtues  of  self-control,  truthfulness,  and 
justice  were  constantly  enjoined  and  practiced.  Ingrati- 
tude and  lying  were  considered  the  most  shameful  vices, 
while  truthfulness  was  looked  on  as  the  highest  virtue. 
At  about  fifteen,  the  boy  passed  to  youth's  estate ;  and 
at  this  critical  period  of  life  he  was  subject  to  strict 
supervision  and  wholesome  restraint.  Through  severe 
military  discipline,  he  was  prepared  for  the  hardships 


PERSIA.  23 

of  war,  while  the  wise  instruction  of  overseers  or  gov- 
ernors fitted  him  for  the  civil  service  of  the  state.  The 
teachers  were  the  ripest  and  worthiest  men  of  the  coun- 
try. At  the  age  of  fifty,  the  Persian  was  exempt  from 
military  service.  It  was  from  among  these  men  of  ad- 
vanced age  and  ripe  experience  that  the  instructors  of 
youth  were  chosen ;  and  they  were  expected  to  be  pat- 
terns of  the  virtues  that  they  inculcated  by  precept. 

Xenophon  has  treated  at  some  length  of  Persian 
education,  and  has  given  us  a  clear  insight  into  many 
details.  "Most  states,"  he  says,  "let  each  one  bring 
up  his  sons  as  he  pleases,  and  further  permit  the  older 
youth  to  live  as  they  choose ;  only  they  forbid  them  to 
steal,  to  rob,  to  enter  a  house  by  force,  to  strike  in 
secret,  to  commit  adultery,  and  disobey  the  civil  author- 
ity. If  any  one  commits  such  a  misdeed,  they  subject 
him  to  punishment.  The  Persian  laws,  on  the  contrary, 
take  the  initiative,  and  exercise  a  care  that  the  citizens 
from  the  beginning  on  have  no  inclination  to  a  wicked 
or  shameful  deed.  For  this  they  provide  in  the  follow- 
ing manner :  They  have  a  public  market-place  which 
they  call  free.  The  part  of  the  market-place  that  ad- 
joins the  courts  of  justice  is  divided  into  four  parts : 
the  first  is  reserved  for  the  boys,  the  second  for  the 
youths,  the  third  for  the  men,  and  the  fourth  for  the 
aged.  Each  one  was  restricted  to  his  allotted  place; 
the  boys  and  men  were  required  to  appear  at  daybreak, 
while  the  aged  could  come,  except  on  certain  days, 
whenever  they  pleased.  The  youths  that  were  not  yet 
married  spent  the  night  in  arms  guarding  the  courts  of 
justice.  As  the  Persians  are  divided  into  twelve  tribes, 
every  division  of  the  market-place  had  twelve  overseers ; 


24  THE  ORIENTAL  NATIONS. 

those  over  the  boys  must  distinguish  themselves  through 
ability  to  teach,  while  those  over  the  youth  should  be 
qualified  to  lead  them  to  virtue.  The  overseers  of  the 
men  were  charged  to  see  that  the  laws  and  ordinances 
were  observed.  The  overseers  of  the  aged  held  the 
latter  to  a  performance  of  their  duties.  The  boys  went 
to  school  to  have  their  sense  of  justice  awakened  and 
developed.  Therefore  the  masters  spent  the  day  espe- 
cially in  holding  court  among  the  boys,  who,  after  the 
manner  of  men,  brought  indictments  against  each  other 
for  theft,  violence,  cheating,  offensive  language,  etc., 
not  only  the  convicted  prisoners,  but  also  the  false  ac- 
cusers being  punished.  Ingratitude  was  punished  with 
especial  severity;  for  the  Persians  hold  that  the  un- 
grateful can  love  neither  the  gods,  their  parents,  their 
fatherland,  nor  their  friends,  since  with  ingratitude 
shamelessness  is  always  united,  and  this  latter  is  the 
most  prolific  source  of  all  vices." 

An  incident  in  the  life  of  Cyrus  will  illustrate  more 
in  detail  the  emphasis  that  was  laid  on  justice  in  Persian 
education.  When  Cyrus,  then  a  boy  of  twelve  years, 
was  brought  to  the  court  of  his  grandfather  Astyages, 
he  was  asked  by  his  mother,  "  My  child,  how  will  you 
learn  justice  at  this  despotic  court,  since  your  teach- 
ers are  at  home  ? "  Cyrus  answered,  "  Mother,  I  under- 
stand justice  very  well  already.  For  my  teacher,  since 
I  showed  an  eagerness  for  learning,  often  placed  me 
as  judge  over  others ;  and  only  once  was  I  beaten  for 
giving  a  wrong  decision.  One  time  a  large  boy  with  a 
small  coat  compelled  a  little  boy  with  a  large  coat  to 
exchange  with  him.  I  decided  that  it  was  better  for 
both,  because  each  had  the  coat  that  fitted  him  best. 


PERSIA.  25 

Then  I  was  beaten,  and  told  that  my  decision  would 
have  been  right  if  the  question  had  been  whom  the 
coat  fitted ;  but  since  the  question  had  been  who  was 
the  lawful  owner  of  the  coat,  I  ought  to  have  inquired 
to  whom  the  coat  really  belonged,  and  whether  taking  a 
thing  by  force  rendered  its  possession  lawful." 

The  Magi  were  an  important  class  in  Persia.  They 
had  charge  of  all  the  religious  ceremonies,  and  were  the 
learned  class,  being  at  once  both  priests  and  philoso- 
phers. So  great  was  their  reputation  that  people  from 
distant  countries  came  to  receive  instruction  at  their 
hands.  The  learning  of  Pythagoras,  that  gave  him 
such  eminence  among  the  Greeks,  is  said  to  have 
been  borrowed  in  large  measure  from  the  Magi.  The 
king  was  required  to  pass  some  time  under  their  in- 
struction, in  order  to  learn  the  principles  of  govern- 
ing and  the  right  way  to  worship  the  gods.  After 
ascending  the  throne,  he  did  not  determine  any  impor- 
tant undertaking  without  consulting  them.  From  this 
circumstance,  they  were  regarded  as  the  directors  of 
princes. 

The  one-sidedness  of  Persian  education  is  evident. 
The  state,  which  was  absolutely  despotic,  was  the  control- 
ling influence.  As  physical  strength  and  moral  rectitude 
were  held  to  be  the  qualities  of  greatest  utility,  the  one 
fitting  for  war  and  the  other  for  the  administration  of 
justice,  they  alone  were  emphasized  in  the  long  period 
of  public  training.  Intellectual  culture  was  wholly 
neglected  in  the  school-training.  Reading  and  writing, 
if  they  formed  any  part  of  instruction  at  all,  were 
taught  only  in  a  very  limited  measure.  The  higher 
branches  of  knowledge,  as  philosophy,  astronomy,  and 

2 


26  THE   ORIENTAL  NATIONS. 

medicine,  were  pursued  only  by  the  Magi.     The  sys- 
tem of  Persia  has  been  denominated  state  education. 


4.  THE  PEOPLE  OF  ISRAEL. 

The  Semitic  race,  including  the  Babylonians,  As- 
syrians, Phoenicians,  and  especially  the  children  of 
Israel,  unites  profound  contemplation  with  great  prac- 
tical wisdom.  For  many  centuries  it  played  an  impor- 
tant part  in  the  world's  history,  founding  mighty  and 
warlike  kingdoms.  Great  cities  arose  in  the  valleys  of 
the  Euphrates  and  Tigris,  remarkable  progress  was  made 
in  the  arts  and  sciences,  manufactures  and  commerce 
nourished,  and  a  considerable  degree  of  culture  was 
attained.  The  forces  of  nature,  particularly  the  sun 
and  the  moon,  were  worshiped  as  divinities.  A  kind  of 
picture-writing  in  cuneiform  or  wedge-shaped  charac- 
ters was  employed;  and  books,  consisting  of  square 
clay  tablets  written  on  both  sides  and  treating  of  geog- 
raphy, history,  mathematics,  astronomy,  and  law,  were 
collected  in  public  libraries.  The  Phoenicians  were  for 
a  long  time  the  leading  maritime  nation  of  antiquity ; 
and,  next  after  the  Jews,  they  have  exerted  the  widest 
influence  upon  the  "Western  world.  They  were  the  in- 
ventors of  our  alphabet  which,  with  certain  modifica- 
tions, was  transmitted  to  us  through  the  Greeks  and 
Romans.  Further  than  these  general  statements,  which 
indicate  the  existence  of  no  small  degree  of  learning 
among  at  least  certain  classes,  we  are  unacquainted 
with  the  educational  history  of  Babylonia,  Assyria,  and 
Phoenicia. 

But  the  ancient  Jews,  whose  literary  remains  have 


THE   PEOPLE   OF  ISRAEL.  27 

been  pretty  fully  preserved,  deserve  further  study. 
This  people  has  occupied  a  unique  position  in  the 
world's  history.  To  it  was  assigned  a  peculiar  mission ; 
and  over  its  development  there  watched  a  special  Provi- 
dence granted  to  no  other  nation.  It  was  the  divinely- 
appointed  office  of  the  Jews  to  preserve,  in  the  midst  of 
idolatrous  nations,  a  knowledge  of  the  true  God,  and  to 
furnish  at  last,  in  the  fullness  of  time,  the  great  Teacher 
of  our  race.  For  a  long  period,  God  condescended  to 
be  the  ruler  and  lawgiver  of  this  people.  And  even 
after  a  formal  kingdom  had  been  established  under  Saul, 
the  rulers  were  so  controlled  by  the  law  previously  given 
to  Moses  and  by  the  prophets  who  were  raised  up  at 
particular  junctures,  that  the  theocratic  principle  con- 
tinued dominant  for  many  centuries. 

The  history  of  this  strange  people  extends  through 
nearly  four  thousand  years.  It  has  experienced  alike 
the  joys  of  prosperity  and  the  pains  of  adversity.  But 
whatever  the  character  of  its  outward  circumstances, 
whether  exercising  a  wide  dominion  from  a  splendid 
capital,  or  wandering  among  all  nations  as  a  by-word 
and  reproach,  it  has  clung  with  the  utmost  tenacity  to 
its  national  character  and  customs,  And  the  influence 
which  it  has  exerted  upon  the  world  is  incalculable.  It 
has  supplied  the  basis  of  all  true  theology  ;  it  has  given 
a  system  of  faultless  morality ;  and,  in  Christianity,  it 
has  provided  the  most  perfect  form  of  religion.  The 
civilization  of  Europe  and  America  can  be  directly 
traced  to  the  Jews. 

The  educational  history  of  this  people  has  varied 
with  its  political  and  social  condition.  In  this  study, 
attention  is  directed  to  the  most  important  and  typical 


28  THE   ORIENTAL  NATIONS. 

period.  The  Jewish  nation  reached  its  highest  point 
of  development — its  golden  age— under  the  reigns  of 
David  and  Solomon. 

Among  the  Jews  the  theocracy  controlled  both  the 
theory  and  practice  of  education.  .  If  it  gave  education 
a  very  one-sided  tendency,  it  yet  laid  stress  upon  an  im- 
portant and  hitherto  neglected  principle.  The  end  of 
education  among  the  Jews  was  to  make  faithful  and 
obedient  servants  of  the  living  God.  It  aimed  at  pre- 
paring each  succeeding  generation  to  fulfill  faithfully 
its  part  in  the  grand  work  assigned  to  that  people.  The 
divine  Lawgiver  himself  prescribed  the  principal  sub- 
jects and  methods  of  instruction.  The  law,  whether 
moral,  ceremonial,  or  judicial,  was  to  be  carefully  stud- 
ied. "  Therefore  shall  ye  lay  up  these  my  words,"  are 
the  Lawgiver's  instructions,  "  in  your  heart  and  in  your 
soul,  and  bind  them  for  a  sign  upon  your  hand,  that 
they  may  be  as  frontlets  between  your  eyes.  And  ye 
shall  teach  them  your  children,  speaking  of  them  when 
thou  sittest  in  thine  house,  and  when  thoii  walkest 
by  the  way,  when  thou  liest  down,  and  when  thou  risest 
up.  And  thou  shalt  write  them  upon  the  door-posts  of 
thine  house,  and  upon  thy  gates." ' 

An  analysis  of  this  passage  reveals  several  important 
particulars.  It  shows  that  the  Hebrew  parent  was  not 
only  to  impart  oral  instruction  to  his  children,  but  to 
teach  them  also  reading  and  writing.  As  he  was  re- 
quired to  inscribe  the  words  of  the  Lord  upon  his  door- 
posts and  gates,  he  must  himself  have  learned  to  write ; 
and,  as  he  wrote  them  for  his  children,  they  must  have 
been  taught  to  read.  Hence,  it  appears  that  the 'ability 

*  Deut.  xi,  18-20. 


THE   PEOPLE  OF  ISRAEL.  29 

to  read  and  write  was  general  among  the  ancient  Jews ; 
and,  in  this  particular,  they  surpassed  every  other  nation 
of  antiquity. 

Education  was  restricted  to  the  family,  in  which  the 
father  was  the  principal  teacher.  There  were  no  popu- 
lar schools  nor  professional  teachers.  Yet  the  instruc- 
tion of  the  Jew,  as  is  evident  from  the  Pentateuch,  em- 
braced a  vast  number  of  particulars.  His  whole  life  was 
hemmed  in  with  minute  regulations ;  and  ignorance  was 
not  accepted  as  a  valid  excuse  for  transgression.  The 
various  kinds  of  food  were  prescribed;  the  principles 
that  were  to  govern  their  relations  to  one  another  were 
specifically  given ;  directions  for  the  treatment  of  stran- 
gers and  servants  were  minutely  laid  down ;  the  facts  of 
their  wonderful  history  and  the  precepts  of  the  moral 
law  had  to  be  carefully  studied ;  and  the  burdensome 
ritual  of  the  tabernacle  and  temple  had  to  become  thor- 
oughly familiar. 

Among  the  potent  educational  agencies  of  the  Jews, 
that  of  the  annual  national  festivals  merits  consideration. 
These  festivals,  three  in  number,  required  every  adult 
male  to  present  himself  annually  before  the  tabernacle 
or  temple  at  Jerusalem.  Commemorating  important 
national  events,  they  kept  the  people  acquainted  with 
their  past  history.  The  passover  recalled  the  deli  very 
from  Egyptian  bondage;  the  pentecost,  the  terrific 
splendors  that  attended  the  giving  of  the  law ;  the  feast 
of  tabernacles,  the  hardships  and  miraculous  preserva- 
tion in  the  wilderness.  These  frequent  reunions  not 
only  contributed  to  national  and  religions  unity,  but 
they  exerted  a  strong  educating  influence  upon  the 
people. 


30  THE  ORIENTAL  NATIONS. 

The  higher  education  was  not  wholly  neglected, 
though  no  institutions  of  purely  secular  learning  were 
established.  The  priests,  whose  studies  embraced  a 
wide  range  of  subjects,  constituted  the  learned  class. 
"  In  order  to  answer  their  destination,"  says  Jahn,  in  his 
"Hebrew  Commonwealth,"  "the  Levites  more  than 
other  Hebrews  were  to  study  the  book  of  the  law ;  to 
preserve  and  disseminate  it  in  exact  copies ;  to  perform 
the  duties  of  judges  and  genealogists,  and  consequently 
to  be  theologians,  jurists,  and  historians.  ...  As  the 
priests  and  Levites  were  to  test  the  accuracy  of  weights 
and  measures,  of  which  there  were  several  models  pre- 
served in  the  sanctuary,  it  was  necessary  that  they 
should  understand  something  of  mathematics;  and  as 
they  were  to  determine  and  announce  the  movable 
feasts,  new  moons,  years,  and  intercalary  years,  they  had 
occasion  for  the  study  of  astronomy.  The  priests  were 
to  instruct  the  people  in  religion  and  law,  and  to  solve 
questions  which  might  arise  upon  these  subjects.  Ac- 
cording to  the  spirit  of  the  institution,  the  Levites  were 
also  instructors  of  the  people,  which  office  they  in  real- 
ity executed  when  they  publicly  sang  psalms  according 
to  the  arrangement  of  David,  and  to  which  they  were 
expressly  appointed  by  Jehoshaphat." 

The  schools  of  the  prophets,  of  which  there  are  only 
scanty  notices  in  the  sacred  books,  appear  to  have  been 
private  institutions  for  the  study  of  poetry,  medicine, 
and,  in  particular,  the  law.  They  were  presided  over 
by  men  venerable  for  their  age  and  ability,  and  patron- 
ized by  youths  and  adults.  They  corresponded,  in  some 
degree,  to  the  modern  university,  the  law,  however, 
overshadowing  all  other  studies.  The  influence  of  these 


THE   PEOPLE   OF  ISRAEL.  31 

schools  can  not  have  been  otherwise  than  favorable  to 
Jewish  culture.  They  were  in  a  flourishing  condition 
under  the  reign  of  David ;  and  it  is  not  improbable  that 
the  "  sweet  singer  of  Israel "  himself  had  profited  by 
their  instruction.  It  was  at  this  time  that  religious  po- 
etry reached  its  zenith.  The  Psalms  of  David,  as  por- 
traying the  deepest  and  most  varied  religious  experi- 
ence, have  never  been  superseded.  After  a  lapse  of 
nearly  three  thousand  years,  they  are  regarded  as  an  in- 
valuable poetic  and  literary  treasury ;  and  some  of  its 
precious  gems  are  set  in  the  memory  of  each  passing 
generation. 

"  From  a  survey  of  the  whole  matter,"  says  Wines, 
"  the  conclusion  seems  warranted  that  the  education  of 
the  Hebrew  people,  conducted  mainly,  though  not  whol- 
ly, under  the  domestic  roof,  was  nevertheless  a  national 
education,  and  worthy  of  the  imitation  of  other  nations. 
Especially  does  it  deserve  to  be  studied  and  copied  so 
far  as  that  branch  of  education  is  concerned  which  con- 
sists in  development  as  distinguished  from  instruction. 
The  Hebrew  law  required  an  early,  constant,  vigorous, 
and  efficient  training  of  the  disposition,  judgment,  man- 
ners, and  habits,  both  of  thought  and  feeling.  The 
sentiments  held  to  be  proper  to  man  in  society,  were 
imbibed  with  the  milk  of  infancy.  The  manners  con- 
sidered becoming  in  adults  were  sedulously  imparted  in 
childhood.  The  habits  regarded  as  conducive  to  indi- 
vidual advancement,  social  happiness,  and  national  re- 
pose and  prosperity,  were  cultivated  with  the  utmost 
diligence.  The  greatest  pains  were  taken  to  acquaint 
the  Hebrew  youth  with  their  duties,  as  well  as  their 
rights,  both  personal  and  political.  In  a  word,  the 


32  THE  ORIENTAL  NATIONS. 

main  channel  of  thought  and  feeling  for  each  genera- 
tion was  marked  out  by  the  generation  preceding  it, 
and  the  stream  for  the  most  part  flowed  with  a  steady 
current." 

The  name  given  to  the  ancient  Jewish  system  is 
theocratic  education. 

5.  EGYPT. 

In  Egypt  we  have,  perhaps,  the  oldest  civilization 
in  the  world.  The  great  Pyramids,  which  indicate  con- 
siderable intellectual  development,  were  erected  more 
than  two  thousand  years  before  Christ.  The  ancients 
looked  upon  Egypt  as  a  school  of  wisdom.  Greece  sent 
thither  illustrious  philosophers  and  lawgivers — Pythag- 
oras and  Plato,  Lycurgus  and  Solon — to  complete  their 
studies.  In  the  Scripture  it  is  said,  in  praise  of  Moses, 
that  he  "  was  learned  in  all  the  wisdom  of  the  Egyp- 
tians." 

At  an  early  period  Egypt  made  high  attainments  in 
the  mechanic  arts.  Great  perfection  was  reached  in 
spinning  and  weaving ;  glass  was  manufactured,  and 
some  of  the  secrets  of  coloring  it  have  baffled  modern 
ingenuity;  iron  and  steel,  together  with  the  common 
agricultural  and  mechanical  implements  made  from 
them,  were  in  use.  Magnificent  ruins  still  make  a  pro- 
found impression  upon  the  beholder ;  while  single  speci- 
mens of  art  have  been  transported  over  distant  seas  to 
adorn  the  public  places  of  great  modern  cities.  The 
Temple  of  Karnak,  from  its  massive  forms  and  brilliant 
decorations,  has  been  pronounced  the  most  magnificent 
of  man's  architectural  works. 


EGYPT.  33 

The  Egyptians  were  mild  in  disposition  and  gentle 
in  manners.  Like  the  people  of  India,  they  were  di- 
vided into  castes,  the  highest  of  which  was  composed  of 
the  priests.  The  priests  possessed  immense  wealth  and 
influence,  were  supported  by  the  state,  and  held  one 
third  of  the  land  free  of  tax.  They  were  the  chief  rep- 
resentatives of  learning,  and  the  recognized  intellect- 
ual leaders  of  the  people.  The  military  class  ranked 
next  to  the  priests.  The  rest  of  the  population  was 
divided  into  three  general  classes :  the  first  included  the 
farmers  and  boatmen ;  the  second,  the  mechanics  and 
tradesmen;  the  third,  herdsmen,  fishermen,  and  com- 
mon laborers. 

The  position  of  the  priests  has  been  portrayed  by 
Jahn  with  an  interesting  particularity.  "  The  Egyptian 
priests,"  he  says,  "  were  a  separate  tribe,  which  was 
divided  into  three  subordinate  classes;  and  they  per- 
formed not  only  the  services  of  religion  but  the  duties 
of  all  the  civil  offices  to  which  learning  was  necessary. 
They  therefore  devoted  themselves  in  a  peculiar  manner 
to  the  cultivation  of  the  sciences.  This  learned  nobil- 
ity, so  to  speak,  was  strictly  hereditary,  and  no  one  from 
another  tribe  could  be  received  among  its  members. 
They  studied  natural  philosophy,  natural  history,  medi- 
cine, mathematics  (particularly  astronomy  and  geom- 
etry), history,  civil  polity,  and  jurisprudence.  They 
were  practicing  physicians,  inspectors  of  weights  and 
measures,  surveyors  of  land,  astronomical  calculators, 
keepers  of  the  archives,  historians,  receivers  of  the  cus- 
toms, judges,  and  counselors  of  the  king,  who  was  him- 
self a  member  of  their  tribe.  In  short,  they — like,  Ra- 
guel,  the  priest  of  Midian,  and  Melchizedek,  the  priest 


34:  THE   ORIENTAL  NATIONS. 

and  king  of  Salem — formed,  guided,  and  ruled  the  peo- 
ple, by  establishing  civil  regulations,  performing  sacred 
services,  and  imparting  religious  instruction.  They 
were  liberally  rewarded  for  the  discharge  of  these  im- 
portant duties.  They  not  only  possessed  large  estates 
in  land,  which,  if  we  may  credit  Diodorus  Siculus,  oc- 
cupied a  third  part  of  Egypt;  but  they  also  received 
from  the  king  a  stated  salary  for  their  services  as  civil 
officers.  However  suspicious  such  an  order  may  appear 
to  many  at  the  present  day,  it  was  admirably  adapted  to 
those  times,  and  by  means  of  it  Egypt  was  raised  far 
above  all  the  nations  of  antiquity,  both  in  regard  to  her 
civil  institutions  and  her  advancement  in  the  sciences. 
Hence,  even  the  Greeks  in  ancient  times  were  accus- 
tomed to  borrow  their  politics  and  their  learning  from 
the  Egyptians." 

The  foregoing  facts  prepare  us  for  a  better  under- 
standing of  Egyptian  education.  This  great  interest 
was  under  the  absolute  control  of  the  priests.  The  edu- 
cation of  the  lower  classes  was  of  the  most  elementary 
nature.  The  youth  destined  for  business  pursuits  were 
commonly  taught  reading,  writing,  and  arithmetic,  while 
the  rest  learned  from  parents  or  relatives  the  manual 
occupation  to  be  followed  through  life.  The  method 
of  teaching  arithmetic  has  been  praised  by  Plato,  and 
seems  to  have  anticipated  some  of  our  modern  methods, 
inasmuch  as  numbers  were  taught  in  the  concrete  by 
means  of  plays.  There  were  two  species  of  writing 
prevalent :  the  demotic,  which  seems  to  have  been  a 
hybrid  between  hieroglyphic  and  syllabic  writing,  was 
in  use  among  the  common  people ;  while  the  hieratic, 
which  was  more  purely  hieroglyphic,  was  employed  by 


EGYPT.  35 

the  priests.  The  bark  of  the  papyrus-reed,  which  grew 
in  jungles  along  the  Nile,  was  used  instead  of  paper. 
The  priestly  and  warrior  castes  enjoyed  greater  educa- 
tional advantages.  At  Thebes,  Memphis,  and  Heliopo- 
lis,  there  were  institutions  for  superior  instruction  which 
were  open  to  these  two  classes.  The  course  of  study 
embraced  language,  mathematics,  geometry,  astronomy, 
natural  science,  and  religion,  though  the  most  advanced 
instruction  was  reserved  for  the  priesthood  alone.  The 
annual  overflow  of  the  Nile,  which  destroyed  landmarks 
in  many  cases,  made  a  knowledge  of  mathematics,  par- 
ticularly of  geometry,  of  high  importance,  and  hence 
this  subject  received  especial  attention.  Gymnastics 
and  music  were  excluded  from  the  general  means  of 
culture.  "  It  is  not  the  custom  in  Egypt,"  says  Diodo- 
rus,  "  to  learn  gymnastics  and  music ;  it  is  believed  that 
the  former  is  dangerous  to  the  youth,  and  that  the  latter 
is  not  only  useless,  but  even  hurtful,  because  it  renders 
men  effeminate."  Yet  in  Chemnis  gymnastics  was 
taught,  and  music  was  employed  in  connection  with 
religious  services.  A  religious  element  was  not  wanting 
in  Egyptian  education.  Keverence  for  the  priesthood 
and  religion,  and  regard  for  the  usages  handed  down  by 
tradition,  were  carefully  inculcated.  The  Egyptian 
system  has  been  designated  priestly  education. 

In  the  seventh  century  before  Christ  a  change  took 
place  in  the  educational  practice  of  Egypt.  Under 
Psammetichus,  elements  of  Greek  and  Phoenician  cul- 
ture were  introduced.  He  concluded  treaties  with  the 
Grecian  states,  and  opened  his  cities  to  foreign  commerce. 
His  children  were  taught  in  the  Grecian  sciences.  The 
Greek  language  formed  for  a  time  a  subject  of  study. 


36  THE  ORIENTAL  NATIONS. 

At  a  still  later  period  Alexandria  attained  to  great 
prominence,  and  became  the  center  not  only  of  trade 
but  also  of  culture  for  the  Mediterranean  states.  As  its 
culture,  however,  was  cosmopolitan  rather  than  Egyp- 
tian, embodying  Grecian  and  Jewish  elements  to  a  large 
extent,  it  does  not  here  demand  further  notice. 


II. 

THE  ANCIENT  CLASSICAL  NATIONS. 

THE  ancient  classical  nations,  Greece  and  Rome,  are 
surrounded  with  a  peculiar  charm.  They  are  the  earli- 
est representatives  of  European  civilization,  and  as  such 
they  have  placed  us  under  great  and  permanent  obliga- 
tions. Though  the  stream  of  culture  has  broadened 
and  deepened  since  their  glory  waned,  receiving  in  par- 
ticular the  mighty  tributaries  of  Christianity  and  mod- 
ern science  and  invention,  it  must  yet  trace  its  origin  to 
the  renowned  cities  of  Athens  and  Rome.  They  have 
left  ns  a  rich  heritage  in  the  domains  of  science  and 
government ;  they  have  transmitted  heroic  deeds  of  pa- 
triotism that  have  never  been  surpassed ;  in  architecture 
and  sculpture  they  have  furnished  models  and  inspira- 
tion for  all  time ;  and  in  the  most  important  departments 
of  literature,  in  poetry,  history,  oratory,  and  philoso- 
phy, they  have  produced  works  of  exalted  genius  and 
perpetual  worth.  These  nations  must  always  retain  a 
prominent  place  in  the  history  of  the  world. 

But  the  prominence  long  held  by  Greece  and  Rome 
will  be  less  marked  in  the  future.  At  present  they  oc- 
cupy a  smaller  share  of  the  world's  attention  than  was 
formerly  the  case.  Many  young  and  vigorous  rivals 


38  THE  ANCIENT   CLASSICAL  NATIONS. 

have  appeared.  Great  modern  nations  have  arisen  whose 
achievements  and  importance  demand  recognition. 
They  have  produced  literatures  that  in  depth  and  ex- 
tent, if  not  in  form,  must  be  conceded  to  surpass  an- 
tiquity. They  have  taken  up  the  sciences  as  left  by  the 
ancient  world,  and  have  led  them  to  new  conquests. 
Sciences  of  which  the  ancients  knew  nothing  have  been 
developed,  and  have  made  rich  contributions  to  modern 
progress.  Commerce  and  invention,  under  the  control 
of  humane  ideas,  have  largely  broken  down  narrow  na- 
tional prejudices  and  made  a  brotherhood  of  the  nations 
of  the  earth.  The  telegraph,  the  press,  and  the  rail- 
road, working  in  harmonious  co-operation,  bring  the 
whole  world,  with  its  manifold  interests,  thoughts,  and 
deeds,  within  the  circle  of  our  daily  thought.  In  view 
of  these  facts,  it  is  safe  to  say  that  Greece  and  Rome  are 

'  V 

destined  to  lose  something  of  their  former  pre-eminence 
in  the  world's  thought. 

These  two  nations  naturally  occupy  a  prominent 
place  in  the  history  of  education.  They  have  left  us 
tolerably  complete  records  of  their  thought  and  achieve- 
ments. In  education  they  mark  an  obvious  advance 
upon  the  defective  systems  of  the  Orient.  The  indi- 
vidual comes  into  a  certain  prominence.  He  is  not 
crushed  beneath  the  weight  of  some  relentless  external 
power,  but  attains  at  length  to  a  degree  of  personal 
freedom.  To  some  extent  at  least,  the  worth  of  the  in- 
dividual is  appreciated,  and,  within  certain  limits,  he  is 
left  to  himself  in  the  pursuit  of  wealth  and  happiness. 
Education  becomes  the  subject  of  careful,  scientific 
thought,  and  enlarged  views  of  its  nature  are  promul- 
gated. It  is  controlled  by  higher  principles.  The 


GREECE.  39 

range  of  studies  is  widened.  Beautiful  results  are  ob- 
tained, as  exhibited  in  the  physical  and  intellectual  life 
of  the  people.  No  other  nations  have  exerted  such  im- 
measurable influence  upon  the  world. 

1.  GREECE. 

Greece,  as  the  oldest  of  the  ancient  classical  nations, 
naturally  claims  our  attention  first.  It  is  about  half  the 
size  of  Pennsylvania,  and  possesses  a  mild  climate  and 
rich  diversity  of  surface.  Its  numerous  coast  indenta- 
tions give  it  peculiar  facilities  for  commerce.  These 
facts  are  worthy  of  mention,  for  they  were  not  without 
influence  upon  the  well-endowed  and  versatile  inhab- 
itants. As  a  branch  of  the  Aryan  family,  the  Greeks 
are  of  the  same  blood  as  the  leading  nations  of  Europe. 
Greece  was  divided  into  a  considerable  number  of 
little  states.  This  gave  occasion  to  almost  incessant 
strife,  during  which  one  and  another  of  the  states,  ac- 
cording to  the  skill  of  its  leaders,  or  the  number  of  its 
allies,  gained  the  ascendency.  In  the  history  of  educa- 
tion, however,  only  two  states,  or  rather  two  cities,  are 
worthy  of  consideration.  These  are  Sparta  and  Athens. 
It  is  here  alone,  so  far  as  the  records  have  descended  to 
us,  that  a  complete  system  of  education  was  developed. 
During  the  heroic  age  to  which  belongs  the  immortal 
siege  of  Troy,  education  possessed  but  a  single  character 
in  all  Greece.  It  was  patriarchal.  The  father  trained 
his  sons  to  physical  strength  and  filial  piety ;  and  the 
mother  trained  her  daughters  to  household  duties  and 
domestic  virtues.  In  the  language  of  Schiller,  "to 
throw  the  spear  and  honor  the  gods "  was  the  end  of 


40  THE  ANCIENT  CLASSICAL  NATIONS. 

male  education.  At  a  later  date,  when  Greece  had 
attained  its  highest  power,  when  Leonidas  defended 
Thermopylae,  and  Miltiades  won  the  field  of  Marathon, 
the  educational  systems  of  Sparta  and  Athens  were  in 
striking  contrast,  and  contributed  no  little  to  perpetuate 
and  imbitter  the  feud  existing  between  these  two  proud 
cities. 

(A.)  SPARTA. 

This  city  was  inhabited  by  the  Dorians,  a  hardy  and 
warlike  race  of  Greeks,  that  held  tenaciously  to  old  cus- 
toms, and  sternly  set  themselves  in  opposition  to  the 
highest  forms  of  culture.  In  the  ninth  century  before 
Christ,  Lycurgus  prepared  a  constitution  for  Sparta 
corresponding  to  the  Doric  character  and  the  peculiar 
circumstances  of  the  state.  The  Spartans,  including 
only  about  nine  thousand  families,  were  but  a  small  part 
of  the  population  of  Laconia,  though  they  were  the  con- 
quering and  ruling  class.  There  were  two  other  classes 
still  more  numerous,  and  sorely  discontented  with  Spar- 
tan domination :  these  were  the  Perioeci,  who  lived  as 
freemen  in  the  towns  adjacent  to  Sparta;  and  the  Helots, 
who  were  bound  to  the  soil  as  serfs.  In  order  to  main- 
tain their  supremacy  in  the  midst  of  this  hostile  popu- 
lation, it  was  necessary  for  the  Spartans  to  be  constantly 
vigilant  and  strong.  The  system  of  Lycurgus,  harsh 
and  repulsive  in  nearly  all  its  features,  aimed  at  training 
a  powerful  body  of  soldiers.  It  transformed  Sparta  into 
a  perpetual  training-camp.  Lycurgus  made  a  new  dis- 
tribution of  land  ;  he  made  iron  the  circulating  medium 
of  the  country ;  and  he  required  the  male  portion  of  the 
population  to  live  in  common  at  public  tables.  By 


GREECE.  41 

these  sweeping  regulations  he  struck  down  many  evils 
in  the  commonwealth.  With  the  abolition  of  wealth 
and  commerce,  pride,  avarice  and  luxury  were  destroyed. 
The  sternest  simplicity  prevailed.  "  The  most  masterly 
stroke  of  this  great  lawgiver,"  says  Plutarch,  "  by  which 
he  struck  a  yet  more  effectual  blow  against  luxury  and 
the  desire  of  riches,  was  the  ordinance  he  made  that 
they  should  all  eat  in  common,  of  the  same  bread,  of  the 
same  meat,  and  of  kinds  that  were  specified,  and  should 
not  spend  their  lives  at  home,  lying  on  costly  couches  at 
splendid  tables,  deli vering  themselves  up  into  the  hands 
of  their  tradesmen  and  cooks,  to  fatten  them  in  corners, 
like  greedy  brutes,  and  to  ruin  not  their  minds  only, 
but  their  very  bodies,  which,  enfeebled  by  indulgence 
and  excess,  would  stand  in  need  of  long  sleep,  warm 
bathing,  freedom  from  work,  and,  in  a  word,  of  as 
much  care  and  attendance  as  if  they  were  continually 
sick." 

The  education  of  Sparta  was  chiefly  physical.  The 
children  were  regarded  as  the  property  of  the  state. 
The  new-born  babe  was  brought  before  a  body  of 
judges,  and,  unless  it  was  approved  of  as  a  strong  and 
promising  child,  it  was  destroyed.  Up  to  the  age  of 
seven  years,  the  child  remained  under  the  care  of  its 
natural  guardians.  After  that  time  the  boys  were 
placed  in  public  educational  establishments,  where  they 
were  subjected  to  a  rigorous  discipline.  Their  fare  was 
coarse  and  meager ;  their  clothing  scanty ;  and  their  beds, 
piles  of  rushes  plucked  with  their  own  hands  from  the 
banks  of  the  river.  "  After  they  were  twelve  years  old," 
says  Plutarch,  "they  were  no  longer  allowed  to  wear 
any  under-garment ;  they  had  one  coat  to  serve  them  a 


42  THE   ANCIENT  CLASSICAL  NATIONS. 

year ;  their  bodies  were  hard  and  dry,  with  but  little 
acquaintance  with  baths  and  unguents;  these  human 
indulgences  they  were  allowed  only  on  some  particular 
days  in  the  year.  They  lodged  together  in  little  bands 
upon  beds  made  of  the  rushes,  which  grew  by  the  banks 
of  the  river  Eurotas,  which  they  were  to  break  off  with 
their  hands  without  a  knife ;  if  it  were  winter,  they 
mingled  some  thistle-down  with  their  rushes,  which  it 
was  thought  had  the  property  of  giving  warmth."  They 
were  encouraged  to  supplement  their  daily  allowance  of 
food  by  theft.  If  detected,  they  were  severely  whipped 
for  their  want  of  skill.  In  order  to  strengthen  and 
harden  the  body,  they  were  continually  trained  in  gym- 
nastic exercises,  the  chief  of  which  were  jumping,  run- 
ning, wrestling,  spear-throwing,  and  quoits.  In  the  sys- 
tem of  Lycurgus  but  small  provision  was  made  for 
literary  culture.  Heading  and  writing  were  taught  only 
to  a  very  limited  extent.  The  absence  of  formal  intel- 
lectual training,  however,  was  partly  compensated  by 
the  constant  association  of  the  young  with  the  old,  from 
whom  they  imbibed  lessons  of  practical  wisdom.  At 
the  public  tables  they  were  instructed  in  state  affairs  by 
the  conversation  of  leading  men ;  they  learned  to  con- 
verse in  an  intelligent  and  agreeable  manner ;  and  by  a 
natural  spirit  of  imitation  they  early  acquired  a  digni- 
fied bearing  and  practical  wisdom  beyond  their  years. 
Their  judgment  was  cultivated  by  frequent  questions 
requiring  well-considered  answers.  A  sententious  mode 
of  speech  was  carefully  inculcated.  Lycurgus  himself, 
if  we  may  judge  by  certain  anecdotes  related  of  him, 
affected  a  curt  and  energetic  style.  To  a  Spartan  who 
urged  the  establishment  of  a  democracy  in  Lacedaemon, 


GREECE.  43 

he  said,  "  Begin,  friend,  and  set  it  up  in  your  family." 
To  another  who  asked  why  he  permitted  such  trivial 
sacrifices  to  the  gods,  he  replied,  "  That  we  may  always 
have  something  to  offer  them." 

The  moral  education  of  Sparta  presented  many  ad- 
mirable points.  The  Spartan  youth  were  taught  to 
maintain  an  absolute  control  over  their  appetites,  and  to 
observe  temperance  in  all  their  habits.  Drunkenness 
was  looked  upon  as  a  shame.  A  modest  and  retiring 
manner  was  inculcated  until  the  moment  for  action 
came ;  then  the  Spartan  youth  were  quick,  aggressive, 
and  strong,  ready  to  purchase  victory  with  their  lives. 
They  were  inured  to  heat  and  cold,  hunger  and  fatigue ; 
they  were  accustomed  to  wear  the  same  clothing  winter 
and  summer,  and  to  bear  great  physical  suffering  with 
impassive  countenance.  Obedience  to  parents  and  rev- 
erence for  established  usages  were  carefully  cultivated. 
The  respect  entertained  for  age  was  so  great  that  it  was 
said  to  be  a  pleasure  to  grow  old  in  Sparta.  This  re- 
spect was  shown  by  saluting  the  aged,  rising  up  in  their 
presence,  making  place  for  them  in  company,  and,  above 
all,  by  receiving  with  submissive  spirit  their  advice  and 
reproofs.  An  old  man  once  entered  a  theater  at  Athens 
too  late  to  get  a  seat.  As  he  stood  hesitating  a  mo- 
ment, he  was  beckoned  by  a  group  of  young  Athenians. 
When  he  had  made  his  way  to  them,  they  retained  their 
seats,  and  thus  exposed  the  old  man  to  ridicule.  As  he 
withdrew  in  confusion,  he  came  to  the  benches  occupied 
by  the  Lacedaemonian  embassadors,  who  rose  in  a  body 
to  receive  the  old  man  among  them.  The  Athenians, 
suddenly  struck  by  this  display  of  characteristic  Spartan 
virtue,  burst  forth  in  applause ;  whereupon  the  old  man 


44  THE  ANCIENT  CLASSICAL  NATIONS. 

exclaimed,  "  The  Athenians  know  what  is  right,  but  the 
Spartans  practice  it." 

The  musical  education  of  the  Spartans  has  been  well 
described  by  Plutarch.  "  Nor  was  their  instruction  in 
music  and  verse,"  he  says,  "  less  carefully  attended  to 
than  their  habits  of  grace  and  good  breeding  in  conver- 
sation. And  their  very  songs  had  a  life  and  spirit  in 
them  that  inflamed  and  possessed  men's  minds  with  an 
enthusiasm  and  ardor  for  action  ;  the  style  of  them  was 
plain  and  without  affectation ;  the  subject  always  serious 
and  moral ;  most  usually  it  was  in  praise  of  such  men 
as  had  died  in  defense  of  their  country,  or  in  derision  of 
those  that  had  been  cowards — the  former  they  declared 
happy  and  glorified,  the  life  of  the  latter  they  described 
as  most  miserable  and  abject." 

The  girls  were  not  neglected.  In  the  interests  of  a 
hardy  race,  they  were  encouraged  to  engage  in  gym- 
nastic exercises,  in  which  the  claims  of  modesty  were 
often  forgotten.  This  physical  training  was  not  with- 
out perceptible  results,  and  the  Spartan  women  became 
the  admiration  of  all  Greece  for  their  development, 
strength,  and  beauty.  They  cherished  a  passionate  love 
of  country.  Nothing  appeared  to  them  so  shameful  as 
cowardice,  and  the  Spartan  mother  could  hear  unmoved 
of  sons  and  husbands  slain  in  battle,  if  they  died  facing 
the  enemy. 

Though  crude  in  form,  and  destructive  of  the  best 
instincts  of  our  nature,  the  system  of  Sparta  admirably 
subserved  its  purpose.  It  made  the  Spartans  a  powerful 
band  of  warriors,  secured  them  continual  supremacy  in 
Laconia,  and  raised  them  for  a  time  to  the  leadership  x>f 
Greece.  It  produced  Leonidas.  "  The  Spartan  educa- 


GREECE.  45 

tion,"  to  quote  Thirlwall's  excellent  summary,  "was 
simple  in  its  objects ;  it  was  not  the  result  of  any  gen- 
eral view  of  human  nature,  or  of  any  attempt  to  unfold 
its  various  capacities;  it  aimed  at  training  men  who 
were  to  live  in  the  midst  of  difficulty  and  danger,  and 
could  be  safe  themselves  only  while  they  held  rule  over 
others.  The  citizen  was  to  be  always  ready  for  the  de- 
fense of  himself  and  his  country,  at  home  and  abroad ; 
and  he  was,  therefore,  to  be  equally  fitted  to  command 
and  to  obey.  His  body,  his  mind,  and  his  character 
were  formed  for  this  purpose,  and  for  no  other ;  and, 
hence,  the  Spartan  system,  making  directly  for  its  main 
end,  and  rejecting  all  that  was  foreign  to  it,  attained, 
within  its  own  sphere,  to  a  perfection  which  it  is  im- 
possible not  to  admire." 

We  may  call  the  system  of  Sparta  martial  education. 

(B.)  PYTHAGORAS. 

At  this  point  it  is  proper  to  notice  the  labors  of  a 
great  educator  who  in  spirit,  though  not  by  birth,  was 
allied  to  the  Dorians.  It  is  Pythagoras.  He  is  an  in- 
teresting character,  whether  we  regard  the  keen  pene- 
tration of  his  intellect,  his  moral  excellence,  his  system 
of  education,  or  the  influence  exerted  by  him  upon  his 
contemporaries.  As  he  left  no  written  records,  not  a 
few  mythical  stories  have  been  connected  with  his  origin, 
and  many  of  his  teachings  are  involved  in  obscurity. 
He  was  born  about  580  B.  c.,  on  the  island  of  Samos. 
After  spending  many  years  in  private  study,  he  sought 
to  increase  his  store  of  knowledge  by  travel.  In  Egypt 
he  came  into  possession  of  the  wisdom  of  the  priests,  by 
which  his  subsequent  teachings  were  perceptibly  influ- 


46  THE  ANCIENT  CLASSICAL  NATIONS. 

enced.  "  The  spectacle  of  Egyptian  habits,"  says  Grote, 
"  the  conversation  of  the  priests,  and  the  initiation  into 
various  mysteries  or  secret  rites  and  stories  not  accessi- 
ble to  the  general  public,  may  very  naturally  have  im- 
pressed the  mind  of  Pythagoras,  and  given  him  that 
turn  for  mystic  observance,  asceticism,  and  peculiarity 
of  diet  and  clothing,  which  manifested  itself  from  the 
same  cause  among  several  of  his  contemporaries,  but 
which  was  not  a  common  phenomenon  in  the  primitive 
Greek  religion."  Subsequently  he  founded  a  school  at 
Crotona,  in  Southern  Italy,  that  attained  to  wide  influ- 
ence and  celebrity.  He  was  careful  to  receive  only  stu- 
dents of  character  and  ability.  They  lived  together  as 
one  family  or  brotherhood,  the  expense  being  defrayed 
from  a  common  fund.  The  course  of  study,  which  was 
comprehensive,  was  divided  into  two  parts  distin- 
guished as  exoteric  and  the  esoteric.  It  was  only 
after  the  satisfactory  completion  of  the  former  prelimi- 
nary course,  which  occupied  three  years,  that  the  stu- 
dent was  admitted  to  the  profounder  studies  of  the 
esoteric  course,  and  to  a  closer  fellowship  with  the  great 
master  himself. 

Pythagoras  was  not  very  far  from  grasping  the  true 
idea  of  education.  The  key-note  of  his  system  was 
harmony.  He  wished  to  introduce  into  human  life  the 
harmony  which  he  discovered  in  the  universe  at  large, 
and  which  produced  the  music  of  the  spheres.  He 
aimed  at  harmony  of  body  and  soul ;  harmony  between 
parents  and  children  ;  harmony  in  social  life  ;  harmony 
between  man  and  God.  '  He  recognized  the  innate  evil 
tendencies  of  our  nature  which  generate  discord ;  and 
in  education  he  sought  a  remedy.  "  At  birth,"  says 


GREECE.  4.7 

Karl  Schmidt,  in  summarizing  the  views  of  Pythagoras 
on  this  point,  "man  is  very  imperfect,  and  naturally 
inclined  to  arrogance ;  through  an  uninterrupted  educa- 
tion, lasting  throughout  the  whole  life,  he  must  be  freed 
from  these  innate  evils,  and  be  elevated  to  purity  of 
heart  and  mind.  Early  training  to  abstinence  in  eat- 
ing, sleeping,  and  speaking,  to  temperance  in  all  par- 
ticulars, to  mutual  improvement  through  hearty  friend- 
ship, and  profound  scientific  culture,  lead  in  this  direc- 
tion. The  work  of  man  on  earth  is  to  attain  to  true 
knowledge — to  knowledge  of  those  subjects  which  in 
their  nature  are  unchangeable  and  eternal.  And  wisdom 
has  no  other  end  than  to  free  the  human  spirit  through 
instruction  from  the  slavish  yoke  of  sensual  desires, 
to  conduct  it  to  a  likeness  with  God,  and  to  make  it 
worthy  to  enter  hereafter  into  the  fellowship  of  the 
gods.  As  for  all  things,  so  also  for  men,  harmony  is 
the  end  of  life." 

The  course  of  study  in  the  school  of  Pythagoras 
embraced  mathematics,  physics,  geography,  metaphys- 
ics, and  medicine.  Especial  prominence  was  given  to 
mathematics,  which  Pythagoras  regarded  as  the  noblest 
science.  Number  governed  the  creative  processes  in 
the  beginning,  and  is  involved  in  all  cosmical  motion 
and  phenomena.  The  devotion  of  Pythagoras  to  this 
science  was  not  fruitless.  To  him  we  owe  the  discovery 
of  the  geometrical  truth  that  the  square  of  the  hypote- 
nuse of  a  right-angled  triangle  is  equal  to  the  sum  of 
the  squares  of  the  other  two  sides. 

Religion  formed  the  basis  of  moral  action.  Pythag- 
oras, by  a  profound  insight  into  nature,  reached  the  con- 
ception of  one  God,  the  universal  Ruler.  Him  it  is 


48  THE  ANCIENT  CLASSICAL  NATIONS. 

the  duty  of  man  to  serve.  Keligious  ceremonies  were 
prominent  in  the  school  at  Crotona ;  and  morning,  noon, 
and  night,  offerings  were  regularly  made.  Temperance, 
courage,  obedience,  fidelity,  and  moral  purity  were 
among  the  virtues  constantly  enforced  by  precept  and 
exacted  in  practice.  Pythagoras  believed  in  the  metem- 
psychosis or  transmigration  of  the  souls  of  deceased  men 
into  the  lower  animals.  On  one  occasion,  seeing  a  dog 
beaten  and  hearing  him  howl,  he  desired  the  striker  to 
desist,  saying,  "  It  is  the  soul  of  a  friend  of  mine,  whom 
I  recognize  by  his  voice."  Ovid  represents  Pythagoras 
as  saying : 

What  then  is  death,  but  ancient  matter  dressed 
In  some  new  figure  and  a  varied  vest  ? 
Thus  all  things  are  but  altered,  nothing  dies ; 
And  here  and  there  the  unbodied  spirit  flies, 
By  time,  or  force,  or  sickness  dispossessed, 
And  lodges  where  it  lights  in  man  or  beast. 

Much  stress  was  kid  upon  music  because  of  its  har- 
monizing influence  upon  the  soul.  At  night  the  pas- 
sions of  the  day  were  banished  by  song ;  and  in  the 
morning,  song  gently  incited  to  the  duties  of  the  day. 

The  method  of  instruction  was  dogmatic.  The  as- 
sertion of  Pythagoras  was  held  as  a  sufficient  test  ^  of 
truth.  This  circumstance  gave  rise  to  the  expression 
ipse  dixit—he  himself  said  it— which  put  an  end  to  all 
discussion.  In  many  particulars,  the  system  of  Pythag- 
oras showed  its  affinity  with  the  Doric  spirit.  It  was 
strict  in  morals ;  severe  in  discipline ;  partial  to  physi- 
cal training ;  authoritative  in  method ;  and  aristocratic 
in  tendency.  It  was  this  last  fact  that  brought  the 
school  into  disfavor,  and  then  into  open  conflict  with  the 


GREECE.  4.9 

masses  of  Crotona.  At  length  the  building  in  which 
Pythagoras  taught  was  set  on  fire  by  a  mob;  and 
whether  he  escaped  by  flight  or  perished  in  the  flames 
is  uncertain.  This  was  the  end  of  the  school  which  for 
a  considerable  period  had  exerted  a  strong  moral,  intel- 
lectual, and  political  influence  in  Southern  Italy. 

(c.)  ATHENS. 

Attica  was  a  small  but  beautiful  district  in  Central 
Greece.  In  size  it  was  hardly  equal  to  one  of  our  coun- 
ties ;  and,  at  the  time  of  its  greatest  prosperity,  it  did 
not  number  more  than  half  a  million  people,  of  whom 
nearly  four  hundred  thousand  were  slaves.  Though  in- 
significant in  size  and  population,  it  was  in  Athens,  the 
capital  of  Attica,  that  the  restless  and  brilliant  genius  of 
the  Greek  wrought  out  the  most  perfect  form  of  heathen 
civilization.  Nowhere  else  in  Greece  did  education, 
both  in  its  theoretical  and  practical  aspects,  attain  so 
high  a  development. 

The  beautiful  was  an  object  of  constant  endeavor  in 
Athenian  life.  The  taste  was  highly  cultivated.  The 
city  was  filled  with  model  statuary ;  the  drama  received 
a  frigidly  chastened  form ;  the  Acropolis  was  crowned 
with  architectural  magnificence.  A  beautiful  soul  in  a 
beautiful  body— this  was  the  chief  end  of  Attic  educa- 
tion. It  was  attained  by  a  harmonious  union  of  physi- 
cal and  intellectual  culture.  This  conception  of  the 
purpose  of  education  is  indeed  incomplete ;  but  it  has 
the  merit  of  laying  stress  upon  important  elements  that 
in  other  ages  and  countries  have  been  too  often  neg- 
lected. The  educational  system  of  Athens  has  pro- 
duced results  that  are  worthy  of  admiration, 
s 


50  THE  ANCIENT  CLASSICAL  NATIONS. 

The  prosperity  of  Athens  dates  from  the  time  of 
Solon,  who  lived  in  the  sixth  century  before  Christ. 
He  was  counted  among  the  seven  sages  of  Greece,  and 
was  the  lawgiver  of  Athens,  as  Lycurgus  was  of  Sparta. 
Appointed  to  draft  a  constitution  to  replace  the  cruel 
code  of  Draco,  he  established  laws  noted  for  their  wis- 
dom and  humanity.  Parents  were  forbidden  to  sell  or 
pawn  their  children — an  unnatural  and  barbarous  cus- 
tom previously  tolerated.  Education  was  encouraged. 
In  addition  to  intellectual  training,  the  youth  were  re- 
quired to  learn  a  business  or  trade  that  would  serve  as  a 
means  of  livelihood.  Any  father  that  neglected  to  give 
his  sons  a  practical  training,  forfeited  all  claims  upon 
then-  support  in  his  old  age.  This  measure  of  Solon's 
laid  a  solid  foundation  for  the  prosperity  of  the  state, 
and  brought  labor  into  honor  at  a  time  when  it  was  gen- 
erally held  dishonorable. 

But  we  pass  to  the  time  of  Pericles,  the  golden  age 
of  Greece,  for  the  closer  study  of  Attic  education.  The 
social  condition  of  Athens,  Pericles  himself  has  portrayed 
in  his  famous  funeral  oration.  "  We  enjoy,"  he  says, 
"  a  form  of  government  which  does  not  copy  the  laws 
of  our  neighbors ;  but  we  are  ourselves  rather  a  pattern 
to  others  than  imitators  of  them.  In  name,  from  its 
not  being  administered  for  the  benefit  of  the  few  but  of 
the  many,  it  is  called  a  democracy ;  but  with  regard  to 
its  laws,  all  enjoy  equality,  as  concerns  their  private  dif- 
ferences ;  while  with  regard  to  public  rank,  according 
as  each  man  has  reputation  for  anything,  he  is  preferred 
for  public  honors,  not  so  much  from  consideration  of 
party  as  of  merit ;  nor,  again,  on  the  ground  of  poverty, 
while  he  is  able  to  do  the  state  any  good  service,  is  he 


GREECE. 


51 


prevented  by  the  obscurity  of  his  position.  .  .  .  More- 
over, we  have  provided  for  our  spirits  the  most  numer- 
ous recreations  from  labors,  by  celebrating  games  and 
sacrifices  through  the  whole  year,  and  by  maintaining 
elegant  private  establishments,  the  gratification  daily 
received  from  which  drives  away  sadness.  Owing  to 
the  greatness  too  of  our  city,  everything  from  every 
land  is  imported  into  it;  and  it  is  our  lot  to  reap  with 
no  more  peculiar  enjoyment  the  good  things  which  are 
produced  here,  than  those  of  the  rest  of  the  world 
likewise." 

In  Attica,  only  the  freemen,  who  constituted  about 
one  fifth  of  the  population,  were  allowed  the  advantages 
of  education.  Female  education  was  neglected.  The 
wife  was  servilely  subject  to  the  husband.  As  a  rule,  it 
was  only  women  without  character  who  sought  to  in- 
crease their  charms  by  intellectual  culture.  The  state 
had  no  further  connection  with  education  than  to  main- 
tain a  general  supervision  over  the  schools,  and  to  pro- 
vide gymnasia  for  the  physical  training  of  the  youth. 
Education  was  an  individual  interest ;  and  it  was  left  to 
the  wisdom  or  ability  of  the  father  to  determine  what 
culture  his  sons  should  receive.  But,  as  the  popular 
sentiment  was  highly  favorable  to  the  cause  of  learning, 
education  was  general  among  the  freemen.  Even  those 
who  received  no  formal  school-training,  were  not  left 
wholly  without  culture ;  for,  in  the  democratic  city  of 
Athens,  the  people  mingled  freely  together,  and  the 
numerous  works  of  art  had  an  elevating  influence. 

The  education  of  the  Athenian  youth  extended 
through  eighteen  years,  which  were  divided  into  three 
nearly  equal  periods.  The  first  period  included  the  do- 


52  THE  ANCIENT  CLASSICAL  NATIONS. 

mestic  training.  Among  the  poor,  the  mother  was  the 
teacher ;  but  among  the  wealthy,  nurses  were  employed. 
These  had  entire  supervision  over  the  child,  and  were 
its  constant  companions.  It  is  interesting  to  know  that 
the  children  of  Athens  more  than  two  thousand  years 
ago  were  entertained  by  the  same  devices  in  use  to-day, 
among  which  may  be  named  rattles,  dolls,  swings, 
balls,  stick-horses,  little  wagons,  and  toy  houses  and 

ships. 

The  boyhood  education  began  with  the  seventh  year. 
The  boy  was  then  removed  from  the  nurse's  care,  and 
placed  under  the  charge  of  a  pedagogue,  usually  an  aged 
and  trustworthy  slave,  under  whose  care  he  remained 
throughout  the  rest  of  his  education.  The  pedagogue 
performed  the  important  functions  of  servant,  guardian, 
counselor,  and  moral  censor.  He  attended  his  charge  in 
walks  and  amusements,  and  accompanied  him  to  and 
from  school.  Instruction  was  given  by  private  teachers. 
The  better  class  occupied  comfortable  rooms  in  which 
they  received  their  pupils ;  while  those  without  means 
imparted  instruction  in  public  places,  receiving  but  little 
remuneration.  Beading  and  writing  were  the  subjects 
first  studied.  In  teaching  reading,  the  Athenian  in- 
structor employed  the  alphabetic  system,  and  encount- 
ered all  the  difficulties  growing  out  of  the  dissimilarity 
between  the  names  of  the  letters  and  their  sounds  as 
combined  in  words  and  syllables.  A  wax  tablet  and 
stylus  were  the  earliest  writing-materials.  The  pupil 
imitated  a  copy  set  by  the  teacher.  After  these  element- 
ary studies  were  sufficiently  mastered,  arithmetic,  gram- 
mar, and  literature  were  taken  up.  The  "Iliad"  and 
the  "  Odyssey"  were  among  the  earliest  reading-books  of 


GREECE.  53 

the  Greek.  These,  with  other  poetical  and  prose  works, 
were  carefully  studied,  extended  portions  being  copied 
with  the  pen,  and  memorized  for  declamation.  Geog- 
raphy was  learned  chiefly  from  the  second  book  of  the 
"Iliad,"  which  contains  the  well-known  catalogue  of 
ships,  and  describes  the  various  districts  from  which  the 
Grecian  forces  came. 

At  the  age  of  twelve  or  fourteen,  the  sons  of  the 
poor  usually  relinquished  study,  in  order  to  learn  a  trade 
or  engage  in  work,  while  the  sons  of  the  wealthy  entered 
upon  a  higher  course,  embracing  grammar,  poetry, 
music,  rhetoric,  mathematics,  and  philosophy.  Much 
of  this  higher  instruction  was  given  in  the  gymnasia, 
which,  at  first,  places  of  physical  exercise  only,  became 
at  length  centers  of  intellectual  culture  also. 

A  gymnastic  training  ran  parallel  with  mental  cult- 
ure through  its  whole  extent.  This  training  was  given 
by  private  teachers  in  their  own  or  in  public  gymnastic 
schools.  The  elementary  gymnastic  schools,  designed 
exclusively  for  boys,  were  called  palaestra.  Here  the 
exercises  consisted  in  running,  jumping,  wrestling,  and 
other  similar  sports.  The  art  of  swimming  was  almost 
universal.  "  He  knows  neither  the  alphabet  nor  swim- 
ming," was  a  Greek  expression  for  an  ignoramus.  The 
later  physical  training  was  received  in  the  state  gym- 
nasia. The  exercises  assumed  a  more  manly  character, 
and  consisted  of  leaping,  running,  wrestling,  throwing 
the  javelin,  and  hurling  the  discus  or  quoit.  This  was 
the  classic  course  of  gymnastics,  and  is  known  by  the 
name  pentathlon.  The  gymnastic  discipline  of  Athens 
had  a  different  purpose  from  that  of  Sparta.  The  Athe- 
nian sought  beauty  of  body ;  and  with  what  success,  the 


54  THE  ANCIENT  CLASSICAL  NATIONS. 

model  forms  of  Grecian  statuary  bear  lasting  witness. 
The  Spartan  aimed  at  strength  and  endurance ;  but,  in 
connection  with  these  qualities,  he  often  developed  a 
coarseness  that  appeared  to  the  refined  Athenian  taste 
almost  brutal. 

Music  formed  an  important  part  of  education.  It 
was  believed  to  exert  a  very  ennobling  influence  upon 
the  mind  and  character.  Poems  were  set  to  music  and 
sung.  The  principal  musical  instrument  was  the  cithara, 
a  stringed  instrument  corresponding  to  the  modern 
guitar,  to  which  it  has  given  name.  The  flute,  though 
always  used  at  banquets  and  public  festivals,  was  less 
popular,  because  it  distorted  the  face  and  was  unsuited 
to  vocal  accompaniment.  "  He  who  followed  music  as 
a  profession,"  says  Falke,  "  was  looked  upon  as  a  mere 
laborer,  and  enjoyed  but  little  respect ;  but,  as  a  part  of 
education  and  culture,  singing  and  playing  the  cithara 
were  an  ornament  to  the  freeman.  Already,  in  Homer's 
day,  Achilles  sang  and  played;  and  to  Epaminondas, 
the  disciple  of  philosophers,  the  victorious  leader  of 
state  and  army,  it  was  imputed  as  an  honor  that  he  was 
a  good  musician,  and  even  dancer.  Music  was  not  in- 
troduced into  the  schools  as  a  means  of  pleasure  and 
amusement;  but  it  was  supposed  to  have  a  purifying 
and  educating  power.  It  was  studied  for  the  elevating 
influence  which  it  exerted  upon  the  soul." 

The  moral  education  of  the  Athenian  was  defective. 
It  lacked  a  true  religious  basis.  The  gods  of  the  Greeks 
were  merely  deified  men,  beautiful,  indeed,  in  body  and 
mind,  but  stained  with  ignoble  passions.  The  Greek 
could  not  rise  above  his  gods.  In  many  points,  how- 
ever, the  moral  education  of  Athens  is  worthy  of  com- 


GREECE.  55 

mendation.  Patriotism  and  courage,  respect  for  the 
religious  rites  of  the  city,  modesty  and  urbanity  of 
manner,  a  constant  regard  for  outward  propriety,  were 
carefully  inculcated.  The  refined  taste  of  the  Athenian 
abolished  grossness  from  his  vices ;  and,  like  the  Paris- 
ian, his  counterpart  in  the  modern  world,  he  sinned  in 
an  aesthetic  way. 

At  eighteen  the  youth  entered  the  military  service 
of  the  state.  They  were  placed  as  guards  at  frontier 
posts,  and  were  subject  to  severe  discipline.  Two  years 
later  they  were  formally  enrolled  among  the  voters,  and 
admitted  to  the  privileges  of  full  citizenship.  The  oath 
administered  on  this  occasion  was  as  follows :  "  I  will 
not  bring  reproach  upon  our  sacred  arms,  nor  desert  the 
comrade  at  my  side,  whoever  he  may  be.  For  our 
sanctuaries  and  laws  I  will  fight  alone  or  with  others. 
My  country  I  will  leave,  not  in  a  worse,  but  in  a  better 
condition.  I  will  at  all  times  submit  willingly  to  the 
judges  and  established  ordinances,  and  will  not  consent 
that  others  infringe  or  disobey  them.  I  will  honor  the 
established  religious  worship.  The  gods  be  my  wit- 
ness ! " 

Athenian  education,  though  far  above  any  system 
preceding  it,  is  by  no  means  ideal.  Its  fundamental 
idea  is  not  correct.  The  beautiful,  as  an  aesthetic  con- 
ception, is  not  the  supreme  end  of  life.  The  moral  and 
the  useful  are  of  higher  significance.  The  worth  of 
man  was  not  fully  grasped  in  Attica.  Slaves  were  ex- 
cluded from  all  education,  and  women  were  held  in 
servile  subordination.  Education  in  Athens  was  par- 
ticularistic. Its  aim  was  not  a  manhood  of  typical  and 
universal  perfection,  but  the  beautiful  Athenian ;  and 


56  THE  ANCIENT  CLASSICAL  NATIONS. 

hence  it  had  not  breadth  enough  to  become  the  educa- 
tional system  of  our  race. 

The  system  of  Athens  has  been  called  (Esthetic  edu- 
cation. 

(D.)  SOCKATES. 

After  the  Persian  war,  Athens  declined.  This  nat- 
urally affected  education.  The  teachers  degenerated 
into  sophists,  who  were  less  concerned  about  depth  of 
knowledge  than  beauty  of  style,  and  less  occupied  with 
truth  than  with  plausibility.  This  unmanly  and  dishon- 
est superficiality  was  vigorously  opposed  by  Socrates, 
one  of  the  most  eminent  characters  of  Grecian  history. 
He  was  born  at  Athens,  469  B.  c.,  his  father  being  a 
sculptor.  Socrates  pursued  the  same  occupation  for 
some  years  with  success ;  but  he  subsequently  relin- 
quished it  to  devote  himself  to  study.  His  personal 
appearance  was  unattractive ;  "  his  projecting  eyeballs, 
his  depressed  nose,  with  upturned  and  dilated  nostrils, 
his  large,  unwieldy  body,  gave  to  his  whole  appearance 
somewhat  of  the  satyr,  altogether  in  keeping  with  the 
tone  of  his  discourse,  which  not  seldom  breathed  forth 
a  vein  of  latent  mockery,  and  pursued,  with  bitter  ex- 
pressions of  scorn  and  irony,  every  arrogant  pretender 
to  wisdom  and  virtue."  He  possessed  a  strong  body, 
and  was  capable  of  great  endurance.  He  took  part  in 
the  Peloponnesian  war  as  a  heavy-armed  soldier,  and 
won  the  admiration  of  his  associates  by  his  strength  and 
courage.  His  wife  Xanthippe  was  a  notorious  scold,  for 
which,  no  doubt,  she  had  too  much  occasion;  but  he 
endured  her  railing  with  a  truly  model  patience  and 
resignation. 


GKEECE.  57 

Socrates  left  no  writings ;  but  Plato  and  Xenophon, 
two  of  his  most  distinguished  disciples,  have  given  full 
accounts  of  his  teaching.  He  did  not  establish  a  private 
school,  but  frequented  the  gymnasia  and  public  walks, 
conversing  with  whoever  was  willing  to  listen  to  him. 
At  a  later  period,  when  his  reputation  had  been  estab- 
lished, a  circle  of  youths  gathered  around  him  as  disci- 
ples. He  affected  great  ignorance ;  and  his  superiority 
over  others  he  based  on  the  fact  that  he  alone  was  con- 
scious of  ignorance. 

Often  a  tiresome  talker  and  an  endless  quibbler, 
Socrates  yet  held  many  noble  truths  that  placed  him  in 
advance  of  his  age.  He  believed  that  the  world  was 
created  by  one  almighty  God ;  that  it  is  maintained  by 
this  same  great  Being ;  that  it  is  our  duty  to  serve  him 
through  virtuous  living ;  that  the  soul,  with  its  vast 
capabilities  and  immortal  nature,  is  the  noblest  part  of 
man ;  and  that  virtue,  and  not  wealth,  is  the  secret  of 
happiness.  "  Then  shalt  thou,  my  Aristodemus,"  he 
says,  "  understand  that  there  is  a  being  whose  eye 
pierceth  throughout  all  nature,  and  whose  ear  is  open  to 
every  sound ;  extended  to  all  places,  extending  through 
all  time,  and  whose  bounty  and  care  can  know  no  other 
bound  than  those  fixed  by  his  own  creation."  In  refer- 
ence to  the  immortality  of  the  soul,  he  says :  "  No  man 
of  sense  will  believe  what  the  myths  teach  respecting 
another  life ;  but  that  a  new  sojourn,  analogous  to  that 
which  is  promised  us,  awaits  the  soul  truly  immortal, 
is,  it  seems  to  me,  what  we  may  believe.  It  is  necessary, 
then,  that  one  should  venture  himself  upon  this  thought, 
and  delight  himself  with  this  hope.  Let  him  take  con- 
fidence in  his  soul,  he  who  has  renounced  as  foreign 


58  THE  ANCIENT  CLASSICAL  NATIONS. 

the  pleasures  of  the  body,  he  who  has  loved  science,  he 
who  has  adorned  his  soul  with  its  true  beauty — temper- 
ance, justice,  strength,  liberty,  truth ;  and  let  him  hold 
himself  ready  for  departure  from  the  world,  against  the 
hour  when  destiny  shall  call  for  him." 

The  principal  significance  of  Socrates  in  a  history  of 
pedagogy  is  found  in  his  method  of  teaching.  He  is 
the  inventor,  or,  at  least,  the  chief  representative  of  the 
developing  method.  "Without  a  fixed  system  of  philoso- 
phy, he  made  truth  the  object  of  his  inquiry.  He  plied 
his  interlocutor  with  skillful  questions,  forcing  him  to 
careful  definition  and  fundamental  principles.  Were 
these  in  any  way  defective,  the  fact  was  pointed  out 
with  unpretentious  but  merciless  and  exasperating  per- 
sistency. "With  little  positive  instruction,  Socrates  forced 
his  hearers  to  the  utmost  mental  activity  and  produc- 
tiveness. "  I  myself,"  he  says,  "  produce  no  wisdom, 
and  it  is  correctly  thrown  up  to  me  that  I  ask  others 
questions  without  answering  anything  myself,  as  if  I 
were  incapable  of  proper  replies.  The  reason  is,  that 
God  compels  me  to  help  others  bring  forth,  while  with- 
holding that  power  from  me.  Hence,  I  am  by  no  means 
a  wise  man,  and  have  no  wisdom  as  the  product  of  my 
own  spirit  to  show.  But  those  who  have  been  with  me 
have  made  incredible  progress,  as  appears  to  them  and 
to  others.  And  so  much  is  certain,  that  they  have 
never  learned  anything  from  me,  but  have  only  them- 
selves discovered  very  much  that  is  beautiful,  and  have 
held  it  fast.  In  this  production,  God  and  I  have 
helped." 

It  only  remains  to  speak  of  the  sad  circumstances,  of 
his  death.  His  virtue  and  his  obtrusiveness  became 


GREECE.  59 

offensive  to  the  Athenians ;  at  length  an  indictment  was 
bronght  against  him  in  these  terms  :  "  Socrates  is  guilty 
of  crime — first,  for  not  worshiping  the  gods  whom  the 
city  worships,  and  for  introducing  new  divinities  of  his 
own ;  next,  for  corrupting  the  youth.  The  penalty  due 
is  death."  The  trial  took  place  before  a  court  of  five 
hundred  and  fifty-seven  judges.  Socrates  might  easily 
have  disproved  the  charges,  but  he  conducted  his  de- 
fense in  such  a  preposterous  and  exasperating  manner 
that  he  was  found  guilty  and  condemned  to  death  by 
poison.  He  refused  to  make  his  escape  from  prison. 
The  last  day  of  his  life  he  spent  in  discoursing  with  his 
friends  upon  the  immortality  of  the  soul.  When  the 
hour  of  death  came,  he  quietly  drank  the  hemlock,  and 
passed  away  with  the  calmness  and  dignity  becoming 
the  philosopher. 

Xenophon  concludes  his  "  Memorabilia  "  of  Socrates 
with  these  words :  "  Of  those  who  knew  what  sort  of  a 
man  Socrates  was,  such  as  were  lovers  of  virtue,  con- 
tinue to  regret  him  above  all  other  men,  even  to  the 
present  day,  as  having  contributed  in  the  highest  degree 
to  their  advancement  in  goodness.  To  me,  being  such 
as  I  have  described  him,  so  pious  that  he  did  nothing 
without  the  sanction  of  the  gods ;  so  just,  that  he  wronged 
no  man  even  in  the  most  trifling  affair,  but  was  of  serv- 
ice, in  the  most  important  matters,  to  those  who  enjoyed 
his  society ;  so  temperate,  that  he  never  preferred  pleas- 
ure to  virtue;  so  wise,  that  he  never  erred  in  distin- 
guishing better  from  worse,  needing  no  counsel  from 
others,  but  being  sufficient  in  himself  to  discriminate 
between  them ;  so  able  to  explain  and  settle  such  ques- 
tions by  argument;  and  so  capable  of  discerning  the 


60  THE  ANCIENT   CLASSICAL  NATIONS. 

character  of  others,  of  confuting  those  who  were  in 
error,  and  of  exhorting  them  to  virtue  and  honor — to 
me,  I  say,  he  seemed  to  be  such  as  the  best  and  happiest 
of  men  would  be.  But  if  any  one  disapproves  of  my 
opinion,  let  him  compare  the  conduct  of  others  with 
that  of  Socrates,  and  determine  accordingly." 

(E.)  PLATO. 

The  most  distinguished  pupil  of  Socrates  was  Plato. 
This  philosopher,  born  in  the  year  429  B.  c.,  traced  his 
descent  to  Solon,  and  Codrus,  an  ancient  king  of  Athens. 
In  youth  he  received  a  careful  education,  and  devoted 
himself  for  a  time  to  poetry;  but,  after  becoming  ac- 
quainted with  Socrates  in  his  twentieth  year,  he  gave 
himself  up  wholly  to  the  study  of  philosophy.  In  pur- 
suit of  knowledge,  he  traveled  in  Egypt,  and  then  in 
Italy,  where  he  visited  the  school  of  Pythagoras.  At 
length,  after  many  changes  of  fortune,  he  returned  in 
his  fortieth  year  to  Athens,  his  native  city,  and  devoted 
himself  to  gratuitous  teaching.  "With  his  philosophy, 
which  was  idealistic,  we  have  nothing  to  do. 

"Plato,"  says  Lewes,  "was  intensely  melancholy. 
That  great,  broad  brow,  which  gave  him  his  surname, 
was  wrinkled  and  somber.  Those  brawny  shoulders 
were  bent  with  thought,  as  only  those  of  thinkers  are 
bent.  A  smile  was  the  utmost  that  ever  played  over  his 
lips ;  he  never  laughed.  '  As  sad  as  Plato,'  became  a 
phrase  with  the  comic  dramatists.  He  had  many  ad- 
mirers— scarcely  any  friends.  In  Plato,  the  thinker 
predominated  over  the  man.  That  great,  expansive  in- 
tellect had  so  fixed  itself  upon  the  absorbing  questions 


GREECE.  61 

of  philosophy  that  it  had  scarcely  any  sympathy  left  for 
other  matters." 

To  Plato  belongs  the  honor  of  first  subjecting  edu- 
cation to  a  scientific  examination.  This  he  does  in  his 
"  Republic  " — a  Utopian  work  sketching  an  ideal  state, 
yet  containing  withal  many  noble  thoughts.  Though 
possessing  considerable  interest,  his  views  remained 
without  any  perceptible  effect  upon  Grecian  education, 
and  may  therefore  be  passed  over  briefly. 

According  to  Plato,  the  soul  consists  of  three  parts : 
"  1.  The  appetite,  which  is  wild,  but  capable  of  being 
tamed ;  2.  The  spirit,  the  element  of  courage,  which 
may  be  enlisted  on  the  side  of  either  good  or  evil ;  3. 
The  philosophic  element " — the  source  of  wisdom,  cult- 
ure, and  love.  "  The  duty  of  education  is  to  control 
the  appetite,  and  so  to  balance  the  other  elements  of  the 
soul  that  each  may  tend  to  the  perfection  of  the  other." 

Plato  made  education  the  business  of  the  state,  re- 
minding us  of  the  Persian  and  Spartan  systems.  All 
interests,  whether  of  the  family  or  of  the  individual, 
were  subordinated  to  the  state.  A  community  of  wives, 
children,  and  property  was  advocated.  A  caste  system 
was  proposed,  the  people  being  divided  into  rulers,  war- 
riors, and  common  people.  Of  these,  only  the  first  two 
were  to  be  educated.  Moral  education  was  made  promi- 
nent. Tales  and  myths  were  to  be  made  vehicles  of 
moral  instruction,  and  whatever  in  poetry  or  sculpture 
tended  to  immorality  was  to  be  rigidly  excluded  from 
the  state.  The  cardinal  virtues  were  courage,  truthful- 
ness, self-control,  honor  to  parents,  and  love  for  one's 
fellow-citizens.  The  course  of  study  embraced  arith- 
metic, geometry,  astronomy,  harmonics,  and  philosophy 


62  TEE   ANCIENT   CLASSICAL  NATIONS. 

which  was  looked  upon  as  the  queen  of  all  sciences. 
Gymnastics  was  commended,  not  simply  for  bodily  de- 
velopment, but  also  for  its  happy  influence  upon  the 
soul.  Dancing  was  added  to  the  ckssical  cycle  of  gym- 
nastic exercises,  though  such  forms  as  might  be  preju- 
dicial to  good  morals  were  condemned.  Music  was 
highly  commended.  Dramatic  and  epic  poetry  were  to 
be  banished  from  the  republic.  "  To  lyric  poetry,"  says 
Bitter,  "he  is  more  favorably  disposed,  but  requires 
that  it,  abstaining  from  all  seductive  ornament  or  senti- 
ment, and  recommending  nothing  indecent  or  unbecom- 
ing, should  only  sing,  with  due  reverence,  the  praises  of 
gods  and  heroes.  This  species  of  poetry  he  allows  to  be 
cultivated  in  the  state  under  the  direction  of  authority, 
which  is  experienced  in  good." 

(F.)   ARISTOTLE. 

"We  conclude  our  inquiry  with  a  study  of  the  pro- 
f  oundest  thinker  that  Greece  produced.  This  is  Aris- 
totle, whom  an  able  German  writer  has  called  "  the 
Alexander  of  the  intellectual  world."  He  was  born  at 
Stagira,  in  Macedonia,  384  B.  c.  In  youth  he  went  to 
Athens,  where  he  was  a  member  of  Plato's  school  for 
twenty  years.  His  eminent  abilities  soon  became  the 
subject  of  remark,  and  he  was  called  by  the  philosopher 
"  the  intellect  of  his  school."  Unlike  his  great  theoriz- 
ing teacher,  Aristotle  was  a  careful  and  practical  inves- 
tigator, and  he  succeeded  by  his  genius  and  industry  in 
compassing  the  whole  circle  of  knowledge  as  it  then  ex- 
isted. He  created  the  science  of  logic,  and  made  valu- 
able contributions  to  many  other  departments  of  learn- 
ing. 


GREECE.  63 

At  the  age  of  forty-seven,  when  his  fame  as  a  phi- 
losopher had  become  established,  he  was  appointed 
teacher  of  Alexander  the  Great.  He  enjoyed  the 
highest  esteem  of  both  Philip  and  Alexander,  and  re- 
ceived at  their  hands  many  marks  of  distinguished 
favor ;  among  these  may  be  mentioned  the  restoration 
of  his  native  town,  Stagira,  which  had  been  destroyed 
by  war,  and  the  erection  there  of  a  gymnasium  for  his 
philosophical  lectures.  Though  having  the  royal  pupil 
under  his  charge  less  than  four  years,  he  did  much  in 
molding  his  mind  and  character,  and  the  effects  of  his 
teaching  were  afterward  discernible  in  the  conqueror's 
life. 

"When  about  fifty,  Aristotle  returned  to  Athens  and 
opened  a  school  known  as  the  Lyceum.  He  lectured  to 
a  circle  of  disciples  as  he  walked  about  the  shady  ave- 
nues ;  and  this  fact  has  given  to  his  school  of  philoso- 
phy the  name  Peripatetic.  In  the  morning  he  gave  to 
select  pupils  a  lecture  upon  some  abstruse  subject ;  in 
the  afternoon  he  delivered  a  popular  lecture  to  a  wider 
circle  of  hearers.  "  As  to  the  unfavorable  reports  of 
the  character  of  Aristotle,"  says  Kitter,  "we  have  al- 
ready weighed  the  greater  part  of  them ;  they  by  no 
means  justify  any  imputation  of  low  or  dishonorable 
feelings.  In  his  works,  on  the  other  hand,  we  see  him 
the  calm  and  sober  inquirer,  who  does  not,  like  Plato, 
pursue  a  lofty  ideal,  but  keeps  carefully  in  view  the 
proximately  practicable,  and  is  not  easily  misled  into 
any  extravagance,  either  of  language  or  of  thought. 
His  principal  object  is  to  examine  truth  under  all  her 
aspects,  never  to  step  beyond  the  probable,  and  to  bring 
his  philosophical  system  in  unison  with  the  general 


(54:  THE  ANCIENT  CLASSICAL  NATIONS. 

opinions  of  men,  as  supported  and  confirmed  by  com- 
mon sense,  observation,  and  experience." 

Notwithstanding  his  greatness,  Aristotle  was  hemmed 
in  by  the  limitations  of  his  age.  The  end  of  education 
with  him  is  the  useful  and  happy  citizen.  "While  at- 
taching undue  importance  to  the  state,  as  Plato  had 
done,  he  still  recognized,  in  some  degree,  the  rights  of 
the  family  and  the  individual.  The  state  was  to  main- 
tain a  general  supervision  over  education,  while  the  de- 
tails were  to  be  left  to  individual  preference  and  judg- 
ment. According  to  the  prevalent  view  of  the  time, 
women  and  slaves  were  to  be  shut  out  from  the  benefits 
of  education.  The  order  of  education  should  be — 1. 
Physical ;  2.  Moral ;  3.  Scientific.  The  purpose  of  phys- 
ical training,  however,  was  not,  as  in  Sparta,  the  devel- 
opment of  brute  force,  but  the  production  of  healthful 
vigor  and  manly  courage.  In  moral  education,  correct 
habits  were  to  precede  theoretic  teaching,  the  child  be- 
ing brought  up  in  the  exercise  of  the  virtues  that  were 
to  form  later  the  matter  of  precept.  Dialectics,  or  the 
art  of  disputation,  was  the  basis  of  scientific  training, 
since  it  served  as  a  mental  gymnastic  and  led  to  the  ac- 
quisition of  the  philosophic  sciences.  Drawing  was  in- 
sisted on  as  a  useful  means  of  developing  the  sense  of 
the  beautiful.  Mathematics  in  its  higher  forms,  as  hav- 
ing no  connection  with  the  moral  nature  of  man,  was 
not  regarded  as  of  much  importance.  Khetoric,  philos- 
ophy, and  politics  received  due  attention.  "  Music,  ac- 
companied with  singing,  so  far  as  it  is  subservient  to 
education,  ought  to  be  encouraged  by  reason  of  its  great 
influence  on  manners,  in  which  respect,  however,  its  ap- 
plication is  very  narrow.  But  it  has  other  uses ;  it  tends 


ROME.  65 

to  purify  the  passions  of  the  soul,  as  is  especially  the 
case  with  tragedy,  and  is  good  for  recreation  and  for  a 
resource  in  leisure."  The  acquisition  of  knowledge  was 
looked  upon  as  naturally  agreeable,  and  the  method  of 
proceeding  from  the  known  to  the  unknown,  from  the 
concrete  to  the  abstract,  was  clearly  pointed  out. 

The  theories  of  these  three  great  thinkers,  Socrates, 
Plato,  and  Aristotle,  made  no  visible  impress  upon  the 
educational  practice  of  their  time.  This  study  of  their 
views  has  been  interesting  and  necessary  only  as  show- 
ing the  height  to  which  the  heathen  intelligence  could 
attain.  The  educational  theories  of  these  philosophers 
are  of  no  great  use  to  us,  except  as  containing  here  and 
there  a  valuable  hint  and  preparing  the  way  for  a  full- 
orbed  conception  of  education.  The  heathen  world 
could  not  produce  a  system  of  education  suited  to  the 
wants  of  Christian  civilization. 

2.  ROME. 

Ancient  Rome  has  a  history  extending  through 
more  than  a  thousand  years.  During  this  long  period 
it  passed  through  various  stages  of  development.  From 
a  condition  of  weakness  and  barbarism,  it  rose  to  be  the 
imposing  mistress  of  the  world  and  the  chief  representa- 
tive of  human  progress.  It  gathered  into  its  arms  the 
elements  of  Grecian  and  Oriental  culture,  and,  as  its 
end  drew  nigh,  it  scattered  them  freely  over  the  rest  of 
Europe.  Rome  has  been  the  bearer  of  culture  to  the 
modern  world.  To  trace  the  course  of  education  through 
the  whole  extent  of  Roman  history  would  prove  tedious, 
and  bring  us  no  compensating  advantage.  Our  inquiry 


66  THE  ANCIENT   CLASSICAL  NATIONS. 

must  be  limited  to  a  single  typical  period.  This  we  find 
in  the  age  of  Augustus,  when  Roman  character  and  Ro- 
man culture  produced  their  richest  fruits.  It  is  the  age 
of  Cicero  and  Yirgil. 

Roman  character,  which  lies  at  the  basis  of  Roman 
history  and  culture,  deserves  a  passing  word.  It  is  in 
striking  contrast  with  Grecian  character.  Both  are  in- 
teresting, but  one-sided  and  defective.  The  Greek,  with 
his  restless,  lively,  emotional  nature,  was  aesthetic,  wor- 
shiping the  beautiful;  the  Roman,  with  his  rugged 
strength,  was  practical,  reverencing  the  useful.  These 
types  of  character  are  complementary  of  each  other; 
and  when  united  and  ennobled  by  Christianity,  they 
present  the  highest  form  of  manhood. 

The  Roman,  no  doubt,  received  from  nature  some- 
thing of  this  practical  tendency,  which  was  afterward 
fostered  by  outward  circumstances.  The  small  colony 
that  first  settled  on  the  banks  of  the  Tiber  was  hemmed 
in  by  hostile  communities.  Freedom  of  development 
was  repressed.  Unless  they  consented  to  give  up  their 
individuality,  or  perhaps  their  very  existence,  the  Ro- 
mans were  forced  to  conquer  a  place  in  Italy.  This 
necessity  called  forth  an  aggressive,  warlike  spirit ;  and 
at  the  same  time  it  awakened  an  ardent  patriotism  and 
thrifty  industry.  These  are  the  factors  which  produced 
Rome's  prosperity.  To  the  Roman,  life  was  serious; 
his  manner  was  stately  and  grave.  The  finest  feelings 
of  humanity,  the  domestic  and  social  affections,  the  re- 
fined pleasures  of  literature  and  art,  were  sacrificed  for 
the  sterner  duties  of  framing  laws,  constructing  aque- 
ducts and  highways,  declaring  wars,  and  leading  armies. 
The  spirit  of  conquest  characterized  the  Romans,  and 


ROME. 


67 


made  them  utilitarian  in  all  their  views  and  aims. 
Utilitarianism  determined  education.  "  The  children  of 
the  Komans,"  says  Cicero,  "  are  brought  up  that  they 
may  some  time  be  useful  to  the  country,  and  hence  they 
should  be  taught  the  nature  of  the  state  and  the  regula- 
tions of  our  forefathers.  Our  country  has  borne  and 
educated  us  on  the  condition  that  we  consecrate  to  its 
service  the  best  powers  of  our  spirit,  talent,  and  under- 
standing; therefore  we  must  learn  the  arts  through 
which  we  can  serve  the  state,  for  I  hold  that  to  be  the 
greatest  wisdom  and  the  highest  virtue." 

The  family  life  of  Rome  marked  a  notable  advance 
over  that  of  Greece  and  the  Oriental  countries.  The 
worth  of  woman  began  to  receive  proper  recognition. 
Polygamy  was  not  tolerated.  In  theory,  the  husband  was 
unlimited  master,  and  even  held  the  right  of  life  and 
death  over  his  children ;  but,  in  practice,  the  wife,  by 
her  virtues  and  tact,  softened  the  sternness  of  his  au- 
thority and  arrived  at  undisputed  control  in  the  house- 
hold. The  type  of  womanhood  produced  in  the  best 
days  of  Rome  was  admirable.  Its  leading  traits  were 
attractive  dignity,  strong  motherly  instincts,  and  lovely 
domestic  virtues.  Not  diamonds  or  pearls,  but  her. two 
rosy-cheeked  boys,  were  Cornelia's  most  precious  jewels. 
The  Roman  matron  managed  her  household  tastefully 
and  frugally,  and  found  delight  in  caring  for  her  chil- 
dren. For  the  first  six  or  seven  years  she  was  their 
only  teacher ;  and  with  the  utmost  fidelity  she  formed 
their  language,  ideas,  and  moral  sentiments.  It  was  not 
till  the  age  of  degeneracy  had  set  in  that  Roman  mothers 
intrusted  their  children  to  nurses  and  pedagogues. 

Elementary  instruction   in   school  began  with  the 


68  THE  ANCIENT  CLASSICAL  NATIONS. 

seventh  year,  and  embraced  reading,  writing,  and 
arithmetic.  The  teacher  of  the  primary  school  was 
called  literator.  The  general  custom  was  to  teach  the 
names  and  order  of  the  letters  before  their  forms — a 
method  that  Quintilian  properly  criticises.  In  connec- 
tion with  spelling  and  reading,  great  care  was  bestowed 
upon  pronunciation.  By  degrees  the  easier  poets  were 
read  and  explained,  and  choice  passages  were  learned 
by  heart.  Writing  was  taught  by  inscribing  a  copy  on 
a  waxen  tablet  or  board,  and  allowing  the  pupil  to  fol- 
low the  outline  of  the  letters  with  the  stylus.  After 
reading  and  writing  came  the  art  of  reckoning,  to  which 
importance  was  attached  because  of  its  value  in  busi- 
ness. The  fingers  and  an  abacus  of  pebbles  were  exten- 
sively employed;  and,  through  repeated  mental  exer- 
cises, the  pupil  was  accustomed  to  compute  with  rapid- 
ity. In  one  of  his  odes,  Horace  presents  us  a  picture  of 
boys  passing  along  the  streets  of  Home  with  slate  and 
satchel,  not  unlike  what  may  be  seen  in  the  modern 
town. 

The  school  regulations  were  exacting,  and  the  dis- 
cipline was  sufficiently  severe.  Obedience  and  modesty 
were,  looked  upon  as  important  qualities.  The  pupils 
were  required  to  be  neat  in  dress  and  cleanly  in  person, 
and  to  observe  a  quiet  decorum.  On  entering  the 
school-room,  they  greeted  the  teacher  with  a  respectful 
salutation.  Corporal  punishment  was  employed.  The 
ferule  was  the  ordinary  instrument  of  punishment ;  but, 
in  case  of  grave  faults,  the  rod  or  whip  was  also  used. 

The  primary  training  of  the  child  ended  with  the 
twelfth  year,  when  he  was  handed  over  to  the  liter atus 
in  order  to  receive  more  advanced  instruction.  The 


ROME.  69 

Greek  language  was  taken  up,  and  grammar  was  care- 
fully studied.  For  the  culture  of  the  understanding, 
the  best  writers,  particularly  the  poets,  were  employed, 
among  whom  may  be  mentioned  Homer,  Virgil,  JEsop, 
and  Cicero.  Poems  and  orations  were  committed  to 
memory.  Especial  importance  was  attached  to  history, 
and  several  Romans  have  won  celebrity  by  the  extent 
and  accuracy  of  their  historical  knowledge.  Poetry, 
oratory,  philosophy,  and  criticism  were  other  subjects 
studied  under  the  literatus. 

,  The  schools  were  private  enterprises.  The  teachers 
of  the  primary  schools  did  not  stand  in  high  esteem,  as 
the  literator  was  often  a  person  who  had  failed  in  other 
callings.  The  literati,  however,  were  frequently  able 
to  attain  to  wealth  and  distinction,  especially  if  they 
were  called  to  the  instruction  of  the  imperial  princes. 
The  public  schools  were  not  generally  patronized  by 
the  higher  classes  of  society.  The  moral  tone  of  these 
schools  was  low ;  and  the  vitiated  air,  with  which  the 
rooms  were  filled,  was  felt  to  be  prejudicial  to  health. 
Hence  it  was  common  to  employ  private  tutors ;  or,  as 
in  the  case  of  ^Emilius  Paulus,  the  conqueror  of  Mace- 
donia, to  keep  Greek  teachers  permanently  attached  to 
the  house. 

At  fifteen  or  sixteen,  the  young  Roman  assumed 
the  dress  of  manhood,  known  as  the  toga  virilis.  It 
devolved  upon  him  to  choose  his  calling,  and  to  direct 
his  subsequent  studies  in  reference  to  it.  Agriculture, 
arms,  politics,  law,  and  oratory  were  open  to  him.  In 
his  choice  the  young  Roman,  with  his  utilitarianism, 
was  determined  more  by  the  prospect  of  accumulating 
wealth  than  by  the  dignity  of  the  calling.  Agriculture, 


70  THE  ANCIENT  CLASSICAL  NATIONS. 

which  was  held  in  great  esteem,  was  selected  by  those 
who  lacked  ability  to  achieve  success  in  other  pursuits. 
The  art  of  war  was  acquired  in  the  field ;  politics,  law, 
and  oratory  were  learned  in  the  forum,  courts,  and  sen- 
ate, under  the  guidance  of  some  distinguished  patron. 
Eloquence,  as  the  surest  road  to  popularity  and  success, 
was  studied  with  assiduity.  Theory  and  practice  were 
combined.  A  wide  course  of  reading  was  pursued  in 
this  connection ;  for,  according  to  a  saying  of  Cicero's, 
the  orator  ought  to  know  everything. 

Such  is  a  history  of  education  in  Home  during  .the 
golden  age.  It  is  the  period  which  followed  the  subju- 
gation of  Greece,  and  the  absorption  of  Grecian  litera- 
ture and  art.  It  stands  in  decided  contrast  with  the 
rough  simplicity  of  the  earlier  and  purely  Roman  civili- 
zation, which  was  intensely  utilitarian,  and  hostile  to  the 
highest  forms  of  culture.  The  elder  Cato  may  be  re- 
garded as  the  embodiment  of  this  earlier  Roman  spirit. 
He  used  his  influence  to  repress  the  influx  of  Grecian 
learning.  He  wrote  to  his  son :  "  Believe  me,  as  if  a 
prophet  had  said  it,  that  the  Greeks  are  a  worthless  and 
incorrigible  race.  If  this  people  diffuse  their  literature 
among  us,  it  will  corrupt  everything."  His  fears,  not 
of  the  literature  of  the  Greeks,  but  of  their  vices,  were 
only  too  well  founded ;  and  as  has  happened  at  later 
periods  in  the  world's  history,  brilliant  culture  went 
hand  in  hand  with  deep  moral  degradation.  The  educa- 
tional practice  of  this  earlier  period  is  well  exemplified 
by  Cato.  As  Plutarch  tells  us,  this  sturdy  Roman 
taught  his  son  to  read,  "although  he  had  a  servant,  a 
very  good  grammarian,  called  Chilo,  who  taught  many 
others ;  but  he  thought  not  fit,  as  he  himself  said,  to 


ROME.  71 

have  his  son  reprimanded  by  a  slave,  or  pulled,  it  may 
be,  by  the  ears  when  found  tardy  in  his  lesson ;  nor 
would  he  have  him  owe  to  a  servant  the  obligation  of 
so  great  a  thing  as  his  learning ;  he  himself,  therefore, 
taught  him  his  grammar,  law,  and  his  gymnastic  exer- 
cises. Nor  did  he  only  show  him,  too,  how  to  throw  a 
dart,  to  fight  in  armor,  and  to  ride,  but  to  box  also,  and 
to  endure  both  heat  and  cold,  and  to  swim  over  the 
most  rapid  and  roughest  rivers.  He  says,  likewise,  that 
he  wrote  histories,  in  large  characters,  with  his  own 
hand,  that  so  his  son,  without  stirring  out  of  the  house, 
might  learn  to  know  about  his  countrymen  and  fore- 
fathers ;  nor  did  he  less  abstain  from  speaking  anything 
obscene  before  his  son,  than  if  it  had  been  in  the  pres- 
ence of  the  sacred  virgins,  called  vestals." 

In  completing  this  sketch  of  Roman  education, 
which  has  been  called  practical,  it  only  remains  to  pre- 
sent the  views  of  two  or  three  distinguished  Romans 
who  have  treated  of  the  subject  in  their  writings. 

(A.)  CICEEO. 

Cicero,  the  distinguished  orator  and  philosopher,  is 
perhaps  the  best  representative  of  his  age,  combining 
in  himself  the  highest  Roman  and  Grecian  culture. 
Born  in  the  year  106  B.  c.,  of  a  noble  family,  he  was 
educated  at  Rome  under  the  best  teachers  of  the  time. 
At  sixteen  he  assumed  the  manly  gown,  and  studied 
law,  oratory,  and  philosophy.  He  afterward  traveled  in 
Greece  and  Asia  for  the  purpose  of  study.  At  Rhodes 
he  studied  oratory  with  Apollonius,  a  celebrated  rheto- 
rician, at  whose  request  he  once  delivered  a  declamation 
in  Greek.  When  he  had  finished,  the  auditors  were 


72  THE  ANCIENT  CLASSICAL  NATIONS. 

profuse  in  their  praises;  but  Apollonius,  after  main- 
taining a  sorrowful  silence  for  a  time,  said :  "  You  have 
my  praise  and  admiration,  Cicero,  and  Greece  my  pity 
and  commiseration,  since  those  arts  and  that  eloquence, 
which  are  the  only  glories  that  remain  to  her,  will  now 
be  transferred  by  you  to  Rome."  After  his  return  to 
Italy,  he  filled  several  important  offices,  among  them 
the  consulship,  in  which  his  services  were  so  eminent 
that  he  received  at  the  hands  of  his  grateful  country- 
men the  proud  title  of  "father  of  his  country."  At 
last,  after  many  changes  of  fortune,  he  was  murdered  by 
emissaries  of  Antony,  against  whom  he  had  delivered  a 
series  of  philippics. 

The  character  of  Cicero  has  been  admirably  por- 
trayed by  Eitter  :  "  "With  the  nicest  knowledge  of  men 
and  things,  without  which  no  orator  can  be  great,  he 
combined  a  fine  sense  of  justice  and  benevolence,  love 
for  his  friends,  who  remained  true  to  him  through  the 
various  changes  of  his  fortunes ;  unwearying  diligence, 
and  a  shrewd  and  comprehensive  forecast  of  future 
events,  and  the  inevitable  consequences  of  the  present 
position  of  affairs.  To  be  as  great  as  he  was  brilliant  in 
political  life,  he  only  wanted  that  perfect  enthusiasm 
which  is  engendered  in  the  mind  by  confidence  in  its 
own  resources,  and  resolute  firmness  in  the  moment  of 
action." 

During  his  later  years,  Cicero  employed  his  leisure 
in  writing  a  number  of  philosophical  works,  in  several 
of  which  he  has  set  forth  more  or  less  completely  his 
views  of  education.  He  demanded  of  teachers  that  they 
should  be  just,  and  neither  too  mild  nor  too  severe. 
Punishment  should  be  resorted  to  only  after  other  means 


ROME.  f3 

of  discipline  have  failed;  it  should  have  nothing  de- 
grading in  its  form,  and  should  never  be  administered 
in  anger,  as  it  is  then  impossible  to  observe  moderation. 
The  pupil  should  be  made  to  feel  that  correction  springs 
from  the  desire  to  do  him  good.  Cicero  held  noble 
views  of  man.  "The  man  who  knows  himself,"  he 
says, "  will  find  within  himself  traces  of  the  divine  ;  and, 
while  he  considers  himself  an  image  of  the  Deity,  he 
will  be  careful  to  avoid  those  f eelings  and  actions  which 
would  injure  this  great  gift.  .  .  .  The  soul  is  derived 
immediately  from  the  Deity.  It  retains  ties  of  relation- 
ship with  celestial  beings ;  and  hence  it  comes  to  pass 
that,  amid  all  animated  nature,  man  is  the  only  creature 
which  possesses  the  knowledge  of  a  Supreme  Being. 
The  possession  of  this  knowledge  is,  then,  sufficient  to 
entitle  man  to  point  to  his  upward  origin.  Nature  has 
placed  in  us  certain  necessary  and  elementary  notions, 
which  form  the  basis  of  all  true  wisdom  and  science." 
Education  should  begin  with  the  earliest  childhood; 
and  during  this  sensitive  period  the  amusements  and 
surroundings  should  be  favorable  to  refinement  and  in- 
telligence. The  memory  should  be  cultivated ;  and,  to 
this  end,  extracts  from  Grecian  and  Roman  writers 
should  be  learned  by  heart.  Religion  is  wisely  placed 
at  the  basis  of  moral  culture.  The  young  man  should 
choose  a  calling  for  which  his  tastes  and  abilities  fit 
him.  The  study  of  Greek  was  held  important ;  but  the 
natural  sciences,  in  which  Cicero  himself  was  deficient, 
were  but  lightly  esteemed.  The  study  of  politics  and 
philosophy  was  looked  upon  as  the  highest  intellectual 
pursuit. 


74  THE  ANCIENT   CLASSICAL  NATIONS. 

(B.)   SENECA. 

Seneca,  who  has  been  placed  by  a  distinguished  au- 
thor among  the  heathen  "  seekers  after  God,"  lived  dur- 
ing a  period  of  great  moral  degeneracy — a  fact  that 
renders  the  purity  of  his  philosophical  teachings  all  the 
more  remarkable.  He  was  born  at  Cordova,  in  Spain, 
two  years  before  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era. 
When  quite  young  he  was  taken  by  his  father  to  Rome 
to  be  educated.  "The  things  taught,"  says  Canon 
Farrar,  "  were  chiefly  arithmetic,  grammar — both  Greek 
and  Latin, — reading,  and  the  repetition  of  the  chief 
Latin  poets.  There  was  also  a  good  deal  of  recitation 
and  of  theme- writing  on  all  kinds  of  trite  historical  sub- 
jects. The  arithmetic  seems  to  have  been  mainly  of  a 
very  simple  and  severely  practical  kind,  especially  the 
computation  of  interest  and  compound  interest;  and 
the  philology  generally,  both  grammar  and  criticism, 
was  singularly  narrow,  uninteresting,  and  useless.  Of 
what  conceivable  advantage  can  it  have  been  to  any 
human  being  to  know  the  name  of  the  mother  of  Hecu- 
ba, of  the  nurse  of  Anchises,  of  the  step-mother  of  An- 
chemolus,  the  number  of  years  Acestes  lived,  and  how 
many  casks  of  wine  the  Sicilians  gave  to  the  Phrygians  ? 
Yet  these  were  the  despicable  minutiae  which  every 
schoolmaster  was  then  expected  to  have  at  his  fingers' 
ends,  and  every  boy-scholar  to  learn  at  the  point  of  the 
ferule — trash  which  was  only  fit  to  be  unlearned  the 
moment  it  was  known.  For  this  kind  of  verbal  criti- 
cism and  fantastic  archaeology  Seneca,  who  had  proba- 
bly gone  through  it  all,  expresses  a  profound  and  very 
rational  contempt." 

After  traveling  some  time  in  Greece  and  Egypt, 


ROME.  75 

Seneca  returned  to  Rome  and  pleaded  in  the  courts  of 
law,  meeting  with  eminent  success.  He  was  subse- 
quently banished  to  Corsica  for  eight  years,  which  pe- 
riod he  spent  in  philosophical  studies.  "  There  is  no 
land,"  he  wrote  at  this  time,  "  where  man  can  not  dwell 
— no  land  where  he  can  not  uplift  his  eyes  to  heaven  ; 
wherever  we  are,  the  distance  of  the  divine  from  the 
human  remains  the  same.  So,  then,  so  long  as  my  eyes 
are  not  robbed  of  that  spectacle  with  which  they  can 
not  be  satiated,  so  long  as  I  may  look  upon  the  sun  and 
moon,  and  fix  my  lingering  gaze  on  the  other  constel- 
lations, and  consider  their  rising  and  setting  and  the 
spaces  between  them  and  the  causes  of  their  less  and 
greater  speed — while  I  may  contemplate  the  multitude 
of  stars  glittering  throughout  the  heaven,  some  station- 
ary, some  revolving,  some  suddenly  blazing  forth,  others 
dazzling  the  gaze  with  a  flood  of  fire  as  though  they  fell, 
and  others  leaving  over  a  long  space  their  trails  of  light ; 
while  I  am  in  the  midst  of  such  phenomena,  and  mingle 
myself,  as  far  as  a  man  may,  with  things  celestial — 
while  my  soul  is  ever  occupied  in  contemplations  so 
sublime  as  these,  what  matters  it  what  ground  I  tread  ? " 

Upon  his  recall  to  Rome,  he  was  appointed  tutor  to 
Nero ;  but,  in  spite  of  the  excellence  of  his  instruction, 
he  was  unable  to  control  the  depraved  passions  of  his 
pupil.  He  was  finally  condemned  to  death  in  the  year 
65  A.  D. — a  standing  testimony  to  the  injustice  and  cor- 
ruption of  his  age. 

Some  of  Seneca's  teachings  are  in  striking  accord 
with  Scripture  truth,  "  God  is  near  us,"  he  says  ;  "  he 
is  in  us.  A  divine  spirit  dwells  within  us  who  watches 
over  us  and  observes  our  evil  and  our  good.  .  .  .  With- 


76  THE  ANCIENT  CLASSICAL  NATIONS. 

out  God,  no  man  can  be  good."  He  believed  that  man 
is  naturally  inclined  to  evil.  It  is  the  office  of  educa- 
tion to  correct  the  evil  tendencies  of  our  nature.  The 
teacher  should  exert  a  purifying  and  elevating  influ- 
ence upon  his  pupils,  leading  them  by  precept  and 
example  to  virtue.  In  punishment  there  should  be 
no  anger,  which  destroys  the  benefit  of  chastisement. 
"Who  condemns  quickly,"  Seneca  says,  "condemns 
willingly;  and  who  punishes  too  much,  punishes  im- 
properly." In  deah'ng  with  pupils,  differences  of  char- 
acter should  be  taken  into  consideration.  The  destiny 
of  man  is  thought  and  action;  and  both  capacities 
should  be  cultivated.  A  multiplicity  of  studies,  ending 
in  superficiality,  should  be  avoided,  and  thorough  work 
in  a  narrow  compass  insisted  on.  The  study  of  nature 
was  regarded  as  important ;  for  it  is  here  that  the  works 
of  the  Deity  are  investigated  and  wisdom  acquired  for 
the  proper  ordering  of  life.  Gymnastics  was  held  as 
serviceable  when  pursued  with  moderation ;  but,  when 
employed  to  form  the  athlete,  it  was  thought  to  exhaust 
the  mind  and  render  it  unfit  for  study.  The  faithful 
and  competent  teacher  stood  high  in  Seneca's  estimation. 
"  What  the  teacher,"  he  says,  "  who  instructs  us  in  the 
sciences  imparts  to  us  in  noble  effort  and  intellectual 
culture  is  worth  more  than  he  receives ;  for,  not "  the 
matter,  but  the  trouble ;  not  the  desert,  but  only  the 
labor,  is  paid  for." 

(c.)    QTJINTILLAN. 

Quintilian,  the  celebrated  writer  on  rhetoric,  was 
born  at  Calahorra,  in  Spain,  about  the  year  42  A.  D.  ;  and, 
like  most  other  great  men  of  his  time,  he  was  educated 


ROME.  77 

at  the  metropolis.  He  devoted  himself  for  a  time  to 
the  practice  of  law,  in  which  he  achieved  considerable 
success ;  but  he  finally  abandoned  this  calling  to  become 
a  teacher  of  oratory,  in  which  he  won  a  high  and  endur- 
ing reputation.  He  was  invested  by  Yespasian  with 
consular  dignity,  and  granted  an  allowance  from  the 
public  treasury.  He  was  the  first  Roman  teacher  that 
was  salaried  by  the  state  and  honored  with  the  title 
"professor  of  eloquence."  He  taught  in  Rome  for 
twenty  years,  and  numbered  among  his  pupils  many 
distinguished  names.  In  his  later  years  he  wrote  his 
"  Institutes  of  Oratory,"  in  which  he  has  presented  a 
complete  scheme  of  education — the  most  valuable  trea- 
tise on  the  subject  that  has  come  down  to  us  from  an- 
tiquity. He  entertained  a  favorable  opinion  of  the  na- 
tive capacities  of  children,  and  admonished  parents  to 
cherish  the  best  hopes  of  their  offspring.  Nurses  should 
speak  correctly  and  have  good  morals,  as  they  have 
charge  of  children  at  the  most  impressible  period.  The 
pedagogues  subsequently  chosen  for  the  children  should 
either  be  men  of  acknowledged  ability,  which  Quintilian 
greatly  preferred,  or  they  should  at  least  be  conscious  of 
their  want  of  learning,  and  thus  remain  themselves 
docile.  Children  should  begin  with  the  Greek  language, 
as  they  would  naturally  acquire  Latin  ;  yet  the  study  of 
the  vernacular  should  not  be  long  deferred,  lest  a  pure 
pronunciation  be  lost.  Education  should  not  be  post- 
poned, as  was  customary  at  that  time,  till  the  seventh 
year,  but  should  begin  with  the  earliest  childhood. 
Amusements  should  be  utilized  as  means  of  instruction. 
Care  should  be  exercised  not  to  give  the  child  a  distaste 
for  learning.  Something  can  be  learned  during  this 


78  THE  ANCIENT  CLASSICAL  NATIONS. 

early  age ;  "  and  whatever  is  gained  in  infancy,"  Quin- 
tilian  says,  "  is  an  acquisition  to  youth."  The  forms 
and  names  of  the  letters  should  be  learned  simulta- 
neously ;  and  whatever  devices  in  the  way  of  playthings 
might  facilitate  this  knowledge  should  be  employed. 
Writing  should  be  learned  by  following  copies  cut  in 
wood  or  inscribed  in  wax.  In  learning  to  read,  the 
child  should  advance  slowly,  mastering  the  elements 
fully.  Public  schools  should  be  preferred  to  private 
instruction ;  for,  without  exposing  pupils  to  any  greater 
danger,  they  supply  the  stimulating  influence  of  asso- 
ciation, friendship,  and  example.  The  disposition  and 
ability  of  each  pupil  should  be  studied.  Precocity  is 
often  deceptive,  lacking  solidity  and  endurance.  Integ- 
rity and  self-control  should  be  taught  early.  "That 
boys  should  suffer  corporal  punishment,"  Quintilian 
says,  "I  by  no  means  approve  ;  first,  because  it  is  a  dis- 
grace, and  a  punishment  for  slaves ;  .  .  .  secondly,  be- 
cause if  a  boy's  disposition  be  so  abject  as  not  to  be 
amended  by  reproof,  he  will  be  hardened,  like  the  worst 
of  slaves,  even  by  stripes ;  and,  lastly,  because,  if  one 
who  regularly  exacts  his  tasks  be  with  him,  there  will 
not  be  the  least  need  of  any  such  chastisement."  Under 
the  literatus,  the  pupil  should  pursue  grammar,  com- 
position, music,  geometry,  astronomy,  and  literature. 
Greek  and  Latin  authors  should  be  read  with  judicious 
criticism  and  all  necessary  historical  explanations.  Last- 
ly, the  student  should  pass  to  the  rhetorician  to  com- 
plete his  course.  Special  regard  should  be  had  to  the 
moral  character  of  the  teacher  and  to  his  qualifications. 
The  teacher  of  eminent  abilities  is  the  best  to  teach  little 
things  as  well  as  great  things,  and  he  is  likely  to  have  a 


ROME.  79 

better  class  of  pupils.  Severity  in  criticism  should  be 
avoided.  "I  used  to  say,"  Quintilian  tells  us,  "with 
regard  to  some  compositions,  that  I  was  satisfied  with 
them  for  the  present,  but  that  a  time  would  come  when 
I  should  not  allow  them  to  produce  compositions  of  such 
a  character."  The  natural  tastes  and  capacities  of  pu- 
pils should  be  regarded,  though  not  to  too  great  an  ex- 
tent. We  should  strengthen  what  is  weak  and  supply 
what  is  deficient. 


III. 

CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  BEFORE  THE 
REFORMATION. 

1.    THE  RELATION  OF  CHRISTIANITY  TO  EDUCATION. 

THE  education  of  paganism  was  imperfect.  It  was 
controlled  by  wrong  principles,  and  confined  within  too 
narrow  limits.  It  did  not  grasp  the  worth  of  the  indi- 
vidual in  all  its  fullness.  It  never  freed  itself  from  the 
narrowness  of  national  character.  Grecian  education 
aimed  at  forming  the  beautiful  Greek ;  Roman  educa- 
tion, at  forming  the  practical  Roman.  But,  with  the 
advent  of  Christ  into  the  world,  there  came  a  new  era 
in  history.  New  truths  were  thrown  into  the  world 
which  were  destined  to  change  its  character.  "  In  low- 
liness and  humility,"  says  Dr.  Philip  Schaff,  "in  the 
form  of  a  servant  as  to  the  flesh,  yet  effulgent  with  .di- 
vine glory,  the  Saviour  came  forth  from  a  despised  cor- 
ner of  the  earth;  destroyed  the  power  of  evil  in  our 
nature ;  realized  in  his  spotless  life,  and  in  his  suffer- 
ings, the  highest  idea  of  virtue  and  piety;  lifted  the 
world  with  his  pierced  hands  out  of  its  distress ;  recon- 
ciled mankind  to  God,  and  gave  a  new  direction  to  the 
whole  current  of  history."  "With  his  coming,  the  world 
started  upon  the  period  of  its  final  development.  When 


RELATION  OF  CHRISTIANITY  TO  EDUCATION.          81 

the  truths  announced  by  him  have  exhausted  their  force 
upon  mankind,  then  conies  the  end. 

The  wide-reaching  influences  of  Christianity  have 
profoundly  affected  education.     Christianity  has  placed 
education  upon  a  new  and  immovable  foundation.    In 
teaching  that  God  is  the  common  Father  of  all  men,  it 
removes  from  education  the  fetters  of  national  limits 
and  prejudices.     It  gives  the  world  the  great  thought 
of  the  brotherhood  of  mankind— a  thought  whose  be- 
nign effects  have  not  yet  been  fully  realized.    In  making 
every  one  a  child  of  God,  stamped  with  the  impress  of 
the  divine  image,  Christianity  attaches  due  importance 
to  the  individual.     It  makes  him  the  object  of  redemp- 
tion, the  steward  of  God,  the  heir  of  eternal  life.     He 
is  made  to  possess  an  endless  worth  in  himself.     Chris- 
tianity teaches  that  all  men  are  alike  before  God,  who 
"  is  no  respecter  of  persons."     With  this  mighty  truth, 
it  sweeps  away  the  false  distinctions  of  class  and  caste 
which  have  weighed  so  heavily  upon  Oriental  countries. 
It  abolishes  slavery.    In  enforcing  the  law  of  brotherly 
love,  Christianity  seeks  to  overthrow  the  injustice  and 
oppressions  of  society.    Inculcating  the  duty  of  personal 
holiness,  it  seeks  to  abolish  the  vices  which  were  sanc- 
tioned by  the  philosophy,  religion,  and  society  of  the 
ancient  world,  and  which  polluted  and  undermined  Gre- 
cian and  Roman  civilization.    It  elevates  marriage  into  a 
divine  rite.     It  makes  the  wife  the  friend   and  com- 
panion of  her  husband,  their  union  symbolizing  that  of 
Christ  with  his  Church.     Children  are  looked  upon  as 
the  gift  of  God.     Christ  took  them  up  in  his  arms  and 
blessed  them.     So  far  from  having  the  right  to  expose 
his  children  to  death,  according  to  the  universal  custom 


82     CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  BEFORE  THE  REFORMATION. 

among  pagan  nations,  the  parent  is  required  to  "  bring 
them  up  in  the  nurture  and  admonition  of  the  Lord." 
These  are  some  of  the  great  truths  of  Christianity  which 
have  changed  the  character  both  of  civilization  and  of 
education. 

2.   THE  FOUNDER  OF  CHRISTIANITY. 

The  life  of  Christ,  apart  from  its  religious  signifi- 
cance in  the  world's  redemption,  is  well  worth  a  careful 
study.  It  is  now  nearly  nineteen  centuries  since  his 
birth.  During  this  vast  period,  the  world  has  moved 
forward  in  its  gigantic  process  of  development.  The 
sum  of  human  knowledge  has  been  immeasurably  in- 
creased, new  arts  and  sciences  have  arisen,  yet  the  life 
of  Christ  stands  forth  in  unapproachable  beauty.  The 
greatest  minds  of  modern  times,  with  the  docility  of  the 
Galilean  fishermen,  have  paid  him  the  tribute  of  rever- 
ent admiration.  The  brilliant  and  skeptical  Rousseau 
acknowledged  that  "  the  life  and  death  of  Jesus  Christ 
are  those  of  a  God."  The  great  German,  Herder,  said, 
"  Jesus  Christ  is  in  the  noblest  and  most  perfect  sense 
the  realized  ideal  of  humanity."  No  one  will  deny  the 
intellectual  greatness  of  Napoleon,  yet  he  has  said  of 
Christ :  "  His  birth  and  the  story  of  his  life,  the  pro- 
foundness of  his  doctrine,  which  overturns  all  diffi- 
culties, and  is  their  most  complete  solution  ;  his  gospel, 
the  singularity  of  his  mysterious  being,  his  appearance, 
his  empire,  his  progress  through  all  centuries  and  king- 
doms— all  this  is  to  me  a  prodigy,  an  unfathomable 
mystery.  I  defy  you  to  cite  another  life  like  that  of 
Christ." 

Human  life  is  an  unbroken  unity,  and  our  early 


THE  FOUNDER  OF  CHRISTIANITY.  83 

years,  like  the  infant  oak,  contain  the  elements  of  our 
future  being.  As  childhood  is  a  peculiarly  susceptible 
and  imitative  period,  the  influences  and  training  belong- 
ing to  it  are  largely  determinative  of  our  destiny.  Leav- 
ing out  of  account  Christ's  divine  nature,  before  which 
we  bow  as  a  mystery,  we  may  trace,  as  in  the  case  of 
other  men,  those  influences  which  contributed  to  his  in- 
tellectual and  spiritual  development. 

Nazareth,  his  native  town,  is  surrounded  by  an  am- 
phitheatre of  hills.  Flowers  grow  upon  the  slopes  and 
in  the  hollows ;  birds  fill  the  air  with  songs ;  refreshing 
breezes  blow  from  the  sea,  and  a  bright  canopy  of  blue 
is  stretched  over  the  landscape.  In  the  midst  of  these 
favorable  surroundings,  Christ  grew  up  in  sympathy 
with  Nature ;  and,  in  after-years,  he  was  able  to  draw 
wonderful  lessons  from  "  the  birds  of  the  air  and  the 
flowers  of  the  field."  As  the  Jewish  system  of  educa- 
tion had  changed  but  little,  the  domestic  circle  at  Naza- 
reth was  probably  his  only  school.  From  Joseph  he 
received  formal  instruction  in  the  Jewish  law,  while  the 
gentleness  and  piety  of  Mary  were  not  without  influ- 
ence in  molding  his  character.  He  profited,  no  doubt, 
by  the  weekly  synagogue  service,  and,  on  his  annual 
visits  to  the  holy  city,  dwelt  fondly  upon  its  wondrous 
associations. 

The  results  of  this  training,  with  its  deep  religious 
significance,  are  apparent  throughout  Christ's  subsequent 
career.  At  twelve  years  of  age,  he  confounded  the 
doctors  in  the  temple ;  afterward  he  repulsed  the  re- 
peated assaults  of  Satan  in  the  wilderness ;  he  vindicated 
his  Messiahship  by  the  testimony  of  the  prophets ;  he 
baffled  the  cunning  of  the  Pharisees  by  his  profound 


81      CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  BEFORE  THE  REFORMATION. 

acquaintance  with  Scripture.  When  he  taught  the  peo- 
ple, he.  called  forth  the  testimony  that  "never  man 
spake  as  this  man."  He  announced  new  and  profound 
spiritual  truths.  In  a  word,  he  raised  himself  abo've  all 
others  whom  millions  yet  to-day  regard  as  their  grandest 
teachers.  Buddha,  Confucius,  Mohammed — to  say  noth- 
ing of  Greek  and  Roman  sages — are  not  worthy  to  be 
compared  with  Christ. 

In  his  manner  of  instructing  his  disciples  and  the 
multitudes  that  gathered  around  him,  Christ  has  given 
us  valuable  lessons  in  method.  His  heart  goes  out  to- 
ward his  hearers  in  the  tenderest  sympathy ;  he  "  was 
moved  with  compassion  toward  them,  because  they  were 
as  sheep  not  having  a  shepherd."  His  teaching  is 
adapted  to  the  capacity  of  his  hearers,  and  is  usually 
connected  with  some  outward  circumstance  that  renders 
it  more  impressive.  He  observes  the  order  of  Nature, 
and  seeks  only  a  gradual  development — "  first  the  blade, 
then  the  ear,  after  that  the  full  corn  in  the  ear."  With 
his  disciples,  he  insists  chiefly  upon  the  practical  and 
fundamental  truths  of  religion,  building,  as  it  were,  a 
substantial  framework  in  the  beginning,  which  the  Holy 
Spirit  was  to  conduct  afterward  to  a  harmonious  and 
beautiful  completion.  "  One  finds  in  his  programme," 
says  a  French  writer,  "  neither  literary  studies  nor  course 
of  theology.  And  yet,  strange  as  it  may  seem,  when  the 
moment  of  action  arrives,  the  disciples — those  unlettered 
fishermen — have  become  orators  that  move  the  multi- 
tudes and  confound  the  doctors ;  profound  thinkers  that 
have  sounded  the  Scriptures  and  the  human  heart; 
writers  that  give  to  the  world  immortal  books  in  a  lan- 
guage not  their  mother-tongue." 


THE  FOUNDER  OP  CHRISTIANITY.  85 

The  teachings  of  Christ  which  affect  education  have 
already  been  considered.  It  is  true,  as  Paroz  has  said, 
that  "  Jesus  Christ,  in  founding  a  new  religion,  has  laid 
the  foundations  of  a  new  education  in  the  bosom  of 
humanity.  He  has  exhibited  in  his  own  person  the 
perfect  moral  development  toward  which  we  are  to 
tend — a  development  which  the  wisdom  of  the  ancients 
scarcely  caught  glimpses  of — and  he  has  opened  to  us, 
by  his  death  and  resurrection,  by  his  word  and  the  Holy 
Spirit,  the  way  toward  this  ideal.  He  is  indeed  'the 
way,  the  truth,  and  the  life,'  and  we  can  say  of  those 
who  would  banish  him  from  education  and  the  school 
what  St.  Paul  said  of  the  Jews  hostile  to  Christ,  that 
*  they  are  the  enemies  of  the  human  race.' ': 

The  testimony  of  Karl  Schmidt  is  no  less  striking 
and  emphatic :  "  By  word  and  deed,"  he  says,  "  in  and 
with  his  whole  life  Christ  is  the  teacher  and  educator 
of  mankind.  Henceforth  there  is  no  higher  wisdom 
than  that  exhibited  by  Christ,  that  God  is  a  spirit,  and 
that  they  that  worship  him  must  worship  him  in  spirit 
and  in  truth ;  no  greater  truth  than  this,  that  God 
dwells  essentially  in  man,  that  God  is  the  true,  divine 
being  of  man ;  no  diviner  duty  than  this :  '  Thou  shalt 
love  the  Lord  thy  God  with  all  thy  heart,  and  with  all 
thy  soul,  and  with  all  thy  mind.  This  is  the  first  and 
great  commandment.  And  the  second  is  like  unto  it, 
Thou  shalt  love  thy  neighbor  as  thyself.'  That  is  abso- 
lute truth,  doctrine  for  all  time,  in  the  appropriation 
and  realization  of  which  lies  the  task  of  mankind,  while 
in  the  person  of  Christ  himself  the  absolute  example 
is  given  as  to  whither  this  truth  leads,  what  it  accom- 
plishes, and  how  it  appears  in  taking  form." 


86     CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  BEFORE  THE  REFORMATION. 


S.  BRIEF  SURVEY  OF  THE  PERIOD. 

The  first  period  of  Christian  education  extends  to 
the  Reformation  of  the  sixteenth  century.  During  this 
long  period  Christianity  did  not  completely  control  so- 
ciety and  education.  Always  encountering  determined 
opposition,  and  having  weak  and  fallible  men  as  its 
representatives,  it  has  never  achieved  faultless  results. 
At  first  its  violent  contrast  with  existing  customs  and 
morals,  and  afterward  its  union  with  the  state,  gave  it 
one-sided  tendencies  and  crippled  its  efficiency.  At  a 
later  period,  its  contact  with  the  uncultured  masses  of 
Northern  Europe,  and  its  perversion  by  a  self-seeking, 
political,  and  often  corrupt  priesthood,  tainted  it  with 
superstition  and  tyranny. 

Notwithstanding  unfortunate  tendencies  in  the 
Church  during  the  first  period  of  Christian  educa- 
tion, indispensable  work  was  accomplished.  The  great- 
est political  power  of  the  earth  was  brought  under  the 
influence  of  Christianity.  The  young  and  vigorous 
nations  of  the  north  of  Europe,  which  at  a  later  time 
were  to  be  the  representatives  and  bearers  of  Christian 
culture,  were  converted  to  Christianity.  The  relics  of 
ancient  literature,  which  were  to  perform  an  important 
office  in  quickening  and  forming  modern  Christian  cult- 
ure, were  preserved  in  the  monasteries,  and  multiplied 
by  tireless  copyists.  The  beginnings  of  popular  educa- 
tion were  made.  A  thirst  for  knowledge  was  dissemi- 
nated among  the  higher  classes,  and  universities  were 
founded  as  centers  of  intellectual  culture.  In  part, 
the  course  of  study,  both  for  primary  and  secondary 


BRIEF  SURVEY  OF  THE  PERIOD.  87 

education,  was  fixed ;  and  the  mistakes  and  one-sided- 
ness  of  educational  effort  have  remained  for  our  in- 
struction. 

It  is  proper  to  say  a  word  here  in  reference  to  the 
Teutonic  race,  which  received  the  precious  boon  of  civ- 
ilization and  Christianity  from  falling  Rome,  in  order 
to  purify,  preserve,  and  disseminate  it  throughout  the 
world.  The  Teutonic  tribes,  the  noblest  branch  of  the 
great  Aryan  family,  possessed  at  the  beginning  of  our 
era  certain  characteristics  that  brought  them  into  sym- 
pathy with  Christianity,  and  prepared  them  for  its 
hearty  adoption.  As  compared  with  the  Romans  in 
point  of  culture,  those  brave  German  tribes  ranked  as 
barbarous ;  but,  in  force  of  character,  purity  of  morals, 
and  nobility  of  feeling,  they  were  far  above  the  Romans. 
They  recognized,  in  a  high  degree,  the  worth  of  the  in- 
dividual, and  were  warm  defenders  of  personal  freedom. 
They  possessed  a  deep  religious  nature,  and  great  rever- 
ence and  love  for  the  truth.  Women  were  held  in  high 
esteem.  Their  respect  for  marriage  and  their  purity  of 
morals  were  portrayed  by  Tacitus,  in  order  to  shame  the 
licentiousness  of  Rome.  In  addition  to  all  this,  the 
Teutonic  races  possessed  great  physical  and  intellectual 
vigor,  which  fitted  them  to  take  up  the  world's  develop- 
ment at  the  point  where  antiquity,  with  strength  ex- 
hausted, had  left  it.  They  became  the  leaders  in  art, 
science,  commerce,  government,  religion,  and  culture, 
in  all  which  they  made  new  and  extended  conquests. 
It  is  the  Teutonic  nations  that  are  chiefly  to  claim  our 
attention  hereafter.  They  are  the  great  leaders  in  edu- 
cation, as  they  are  in  every  other  weighty  human  in- 
terest. 


58      CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  BEFORE  THE  REFORMATION. 


4.  EDUCATION  IN  THE  EARLY  CHURCH. 

After  these  general  remarks,  we  proceed  to  trace  the 
history  of  education  during  the  period  under  considera- 
tion more  in  detail.  Education  in  the  early  Church  is 
first  to  be  considered.  We  shall  discover  among  the 
primitive  Christians  an  unmistakable  incompleteness  in 
educational  training ;  but,  at  the  same  time,  we  shall 
find  the  highest  purity  of  life  and  the  most  self-sacrific- 
ing devotion  that  have  been  manifested,  perhaps,  in  the 
history  of  our  race.  After  contemplating  the  vicious 
society  of  heathen  countries,  and  turning  even  from  our 
own  more  cultured  civilization,  it  is  delightful  to  con- 
sider the  beautiful  characteristics  of  the  primitive  Chris- 
tian life.  With  the  early  Christians,  the  adoption  of 
Christianity  meant  the  complete  exemplification  of  its 
precepts  in  the  life.  Says  Justin  Martyr,  who  was  born 
about  the  end  of  the  first  century,  himself  one  of  the 
most  distinguished  Christians :  "  We  who  once  delighted 
in  lewdness  now  embrace  chastity;  we  who  once  em- 
braced magical  arts  have  consecrated  ourselves  to  the 
good  and  unbegotten  God ;  we  who  loved  above  all 
things  the  gain  of  money  and  possessions  now  bring  all 
that  we  have  into  one  common  stock,  and  give  a  portion 
to  every  one  that  needs ;  we  who  once  hated  and  killed 
one  another  now  pray  for  our  enemies,  and  endeavor 
to  conciliate  those  who  unjustly  hate  us.  Now,  whoso- 
ever are  found  not  to  live  as  Christ  taught,  let  it  be 
publicly  known  that  they  are  not  Christians,  though 
they  should  profess  with  their  tongues  the  doctrines  of 
Christ." 


EDUCATION  IN  THE  EARLY  CHURCH.       §9 

The  marriage  relation  was  almost  ideal  in  its  beauty. 
According  to  apostolic  injunction,  marriage  between 
believers  only  was  allowed.  Again  we  let  one  of  the 
Church  fathers  speak.  Tertullian,  who  lived  in  the 
second  century,  says  :  "  How  intimate  the  union  be- 
tween believers!  Their  hopes,  their  aspirations,  their 
desires,  all  the  same.  They  are  one  in  faith  and  in  the 
service  of  their  Lord,  as  they  are  also  in  flesh  and  in 
heart.  In  mutual  concord  they  read  the  Scriptures, 
and  fast  and  pray  together,  aiding  and  sustaining  each 
other  by  mutual  instruction  and  encouragement.  They 
go  in  company  to  the  house  of  the  Lord ;  they  sit  to- 
gether at  his  table.  In  persecution  and  in  want,  they 
bear  their  mutual  burdens,  and  participate  in  each  other's 
joys.  They  live  together  in  mutual  confidence,  and  in 
the  enjoyment  of  each  other's  society.  In  the  freedom 
of  mutual  confidence  they  administer  to  the  sick,  relieve 
the  needy,  distribute  their  alms,  and  each  freely  engages 
in  his  religious  services  without  concealment  from  the 
other.  Unitedly  they  offer  their  prayers  to  God,  and 
sing  his  praise,  knowing  no  rivalry  but  in  these  acts  of 
devotion.  In  such  scenes  of  domestic  bliss,  Christ  re- 
joices and  adds  his  peace.  To  two  so  united  he  grants 
his  presence ;  and  where  he  is  no  evil  can  abide." 

Education  among  the  early  Christians  has  been  beau- 
tifully portrayed  by  Coleman.  "  The  tender  solicitude 
of  these  early  Christians  for  the  religious  instruction  of 
their  children,"  he  says,  "  is  one  of  their  most  beautiful 
characteristics.  They  taught  them  even  at  the  earliest 
dawn  of  intelligence  the  sacred  names  of  God  and  the 
Saviour.  They  sought  to  lead  the  infant  minds  of  their 
children  up  to  God,  by  familiar  narratives  from  Script- 


90     CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  BEFORE  THE  REFORMATION. 

•ore,  of  Joseph,  of  young  Samuel,  of  Josiah,  and  of  the 
holy  child  Jesus.  The  history  of  the  patriarchs  and 
prophets,  apostles  and  holy  men,  whose  lives  are  nar- 
rated in  the  sacred  volume,  were  the  nursery-tales  with 
which  they  sought  to  form  the  tender  minds  of  their 
children.  As  the  mind  of  the  child  expanded,  the  par- 
ents made  it  their  sacred  duty  and  delightful  task  daily 
to  exercise  him  in  the  recital  of  select  passages  of  Script- 
ure relating  to  the  doctrines  and  duties  of  religion.  The 
Bible  was  the  entertainment  of  the  fireside.  It  was  the 
first,  the  last,  the  only  school-book  almost,  of  the  child ; 
and  sacred  psalmody,  the  only  song  with  which  his  infant 
cry  was  hushed  as  he  was  lulled  to  rest  on  his  mother's 
arm.  The  sacred  song  and  the  rude  melody  of  its 
music  were,  from  the  earliest  periods  of  Christian  an- 
tiquity, an  important  means  of  impressing  the  infant 
heart  with  sentiments  of  piety,  and  of  imbuing  the  sus- 
ceptible minds  of  the  young  with  the  knowledge  and 
the  faith  of  the  Scriptures.  Even  in  the  earliest  period 
of  Christianity,  there  were  those  who,  like  our  divine 
Watts  in  modern  times,  '  condescended  to  lay  aside  the 
scholar,  the  philosopher,  and  the  wit,  to  write  little 
poems  of  devotion  adapted  to  the  wants  and  capacities 
of  children.'" 

The  purpose  of  these  early  Christian  parents,  as  of 
the  ancient  Jews,  was  to  train  up  their  children  in  the 
fear  of  God.  In  order  that  the  children  might  be  ex- 
posed as  little  as  possible  to  the  corrupting  influence 
of  heathen  associations,  their  education  was  conducted 
within  the  healthful  precincts  of  home.  As  a  result, 
they  grew  up  without  a  taste  for  debasing  pleasures; 
they  acquired  simple  domestic  tastes ;  and,  when  the 


EDUCATION  IN  THE  EARLY  CHURCH.       91 

time  came,  they  took  their  place  as  consistent  and  ear- 
nest workers  in  the  Church. 

Such  was  the  character  of  education  among  the 
primitive  Christians.  It  is  defective,  indeed,  subordi- 
nating and  even  sacrificing  the  intellectual  to  the  moral 
and  religious  elements  of  our  nature  ;  but  the  type  of 
character  it  produced  was  truly  admirable.  The  beauty 
of  this  character  made  its  impression  upon  an  age  notori- 
ous for  its  vice.  It  extorted  unwilling  praises  from  the 
enemies  of  Christianity.  A  celebrated  heathen  orator 
exclaimed,  "  What  wives  these  Christians  have ! "  "A 
noble  testimony,"  says  a  writer  of  note,  "  to  the  refining 
power  of  woman,  and  the  most  beautiful  tribute  to  the 
gentle,  persuasive  influence  of  her  piety  which  all  an- 
tiquity, heathen  or  Christian,  furnishes." 

(A.)   CATECHETICAL    SCHOOLS. 

The  catechetical  schools,  which  sprang  up  naturally 
in  this  primitive  period,  were  designed  to  prepare  can- 
didates for  Christian  baptism.  In  the  apostolic  period, 
new  converts  to  Christianity  were  received  into  the 
church  by  baptism  after  a  very  brief  course  of  instruc- 
tion and  upon  a  very  simple  profession  of  faith.  The 
Ethiopian  eunuch,  for  example,  received  at  most  only  a 
few  hours'  instruction  as  he  rode  along  in  his  chariot, 
and  was  baptized  upon  the  confession,  "  I  believe  that 
Jesus  Christ  is  the  Son  of  God."  But  as  Christianity 
spread,  and  converts  from  among  the  Jews  and  heathen 
became  more  numerous,  it  was  found  advisable,  for  the 
sake  of  greater  unity,  purity,  and  intelligence  in  the 
Church,  to  give  candidates  for  baptism  more  extended 


92      CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  BEFORE  THE  REFORMATION. 

instruction.  This  instruction,  which  extended  from  a 
few  months  to  three  years,  was  given  by  a  special  Church 
officer  under  the  name  of  catechist,  and  embraced  the 
fundamental  truths  and  doctrines  of  Christianity.  The 
candidates,  called  catechumens,  or  learners,  studied  the 
ten  commandments,  the  Lord's  prayer,  and  other  por- 
tions of  Scripture,  as  well  as  a  short  confession  of  faith 
containing  the  chief  articles  of  Christian  belief.  The 
instruction  was  at  first  imparted  privately  at  some  con- 
venient place,  but  afterward  in  the  Church  or  school- 
buildings. 

The  most  celebrated  of  the  catechetical  schools  was 
that  of  Alexandria,  founded  in  the  second  century.  It 
was  in  this  city  that  Christianity  came  into  closest  con- 
tact with  heathen  culture.  Many  of  the  candidates  ap- 
plying for  admission  into  the  Church  were  representa- 
tives of  heathen  learning.  In  preparing  them  for 
baptism,  it  was  necessary  that  the  instruction  assume  a 
more  complete  and  scientific  form.  In  addition  to  this, 
the  Alexandrian  school  devoted  itself  to  the  education 
of  Christian  teachers.  It  became,  in  fact,  a  theological 
seminary  of  high  order,  in  which,  along  with  specifically 
Christian  instruction,  philology,  rhetoric,  mathematics, 
and  philosophy  were  studied.  The  attitude  of  this 
school  toward  heathen  learning  is  thus  expressed  by 
Clement,  one  of  its  earliest  and  most  distinguished 
teachers :  "  The  Mosaic  law  and  heathen  philosophy  do 
not  stand  in  direct  opposition  to  each  other,  but  are  re- 
lated like  fragments  of  a  single  truth,  like  the  pieces, 
as  it  were,  of  a  shattered  whole.  .  .  .  Both  prepared 
the  way,  but  in  a  different  manner,  for  Christianity." 
The  school  had  no  public  buildings  ;  and  the  teachers, 


EDUCATION  DURING  THE  MIDDLE  AGES.  93 

several  of  whom  were  very  distinguished,  taught  in 
their  private  houses.  They  received  no  fixed  salary,  but 
were  supported  by  gifts  from  their  pupils. 

"At  Alexandria,"  says  Neander,  "where  it  often 
happened  that  men  of  education,  even  the  learned,  and 
those  habituated  to  philosophical  reflection,  applied  to 
receive  instruction  in  Christianity,  it  was  necessary  that 
the  catechists  should  be  men  of  liberal  education,  quali- 
fied to  meet  the  doubts  and  objections  of  pagans,  and  to 
follow  them  on  their  own  position.  Able  and  learned 
laymen  were  therefore  selected  here ;  and  this  class  of 
catechists  led  afterward  to  the  formation  of  an  impor- 
tant theological  school  among  the  Christians."  Alex- 
andria was  the  birthplace  of  scientific  Christian  theol- 
ogy- 

5.  EDUCATION  DURING  THE  MIDDLE  AGES. 

It  is  necessary  to  notice  a  peculiar  tendency  in  the 
Church  which  exerted  for  nearly  a  thousand  years  an 
important  influence  upon  education.  This  was  the  as- 
cetic tendency,  which  disdains  the  present  world  in  the 
interests  of  the  world  to  come.  This  tendency  has  been 
forcibly  characterized  by  George  Eliot  as  "  other-world- 
liness."  It  fails  to  grasp  the  great  truth  that  human 
life  is  an  organic  unity ;  that  eternal  life  is  but  a  con- 
tinuation of  temporal  life ;  and  that  on  earth,  as  well  as 
in  heaven,  we  are  in  the  presence  and  service  of  God. 
Asceticism,  which  manifested  itself  in  various  forms  of 
self-abnegation  or  physical  torture,  was  based  upon  the 
idea  that  the  body  is  the  seat  of  sin.  Hence  it  was  con- 
cluded that  by  imposing  restraints  and  suffering  upon 


94:      CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  BEFORE  THE   REFORMATION. 

the  body,  by  which  its  natural  force  was  weakened,  the 
soul  was  enabled  to  attain  to  a  higher  degree  of  sanctity. 
The  two  principal  classes  of  ascetics  were  the  hermits, 
who  withdrew  from  society  to  live  in  solitude  ;  and  the 
monks,  who  lived  together  in  monasteries  under  the 
vow  of  poverty,  chastity,  and  obedience.  The  latter 
was  far  the  more  numerous  class,  and  its  existence  has 
been  perpetuated  to  the  present. 

Traces  of  the  ascetic  spirit  are  to  be  found  in  the 
primitive  Church ;  but  it  was  not  till  late  in  the  fourth 
century  that  it  reached  a  complete  development.  It 
then  remained  dominant  throughout  the  middle  ages. 
Perhaps  it  was  a  phase  of  human  development  necessary 
in  the  zigzag  march  of  progress,  and  indispensable  to 
the  ultimate  attainment  of  truth.  At  all  events,  it  was 
a  natural  one.  The  heathen  world  had  long  been  at- 
taching too  much  relative  importance  to  the  earthly 
life.  By  a  natural  reaction,  the  Church,  when  it  came 
to  assert  itself  in  opposition  to  prevailing  beliefs  and 
customs,  unduly  contemned  the  present  world  in  mag- 
nifying the  world  to  come.  This  one-sided,  other- 
worldly spirit  exerted  a  wide-reaching  influence,  laying 
its  hand  upon  every  important  human  interest.  The 
natural  world  was  made  to  possess  no  value.  Religious 
doctrines,  forms,  and  interests  became  the  all-absorbing 
subject  of  human  thought  and  activity.  The  priesthood 
were  elevated  into  a  false  importance,  which  was  used 
by  them  to  increase  their  power.  Science  was  sunk  in 
theology.  History  gave  place  to  marvelous  legends  of 
saints ;  and  the  principle  of  authority  controlled  all  sci- 
entific thought.  Education  was  stamped  with  a  theo- 
logical bias  that  fettered  it  for  ages.  In  fact,  this  ascetic 


EDUCATION  DURING  THE   MIDDLE   AGES.  95 

spirit  may  be  regarded  as  the  controlling  principle  in 
Christian  education  prior  to  the  Reformation. 

"  In  the  first  stage  of  its  development,"  profoundly 
observes  Karl  Schmidt,  in  speaking  of  the  Church,  "  it 
was  religion  especially  that  dominated  all  intellectual 
interests.  The  religious  impulse  in  Christianity  was  so 
powerful  and  weighty  that  the  human  spirit  found  in  it 
and  its  exemplification  complete  satisfaction.  There 
was  a  great  withdrawal  of  man  within  himself,  into  that 
part  of  his  nature  that  unites  him  to  God,  and  that  be- 
longs, not  to  the  perishable,  but  to  the  imperishable ; 
not  to  the  visible,  but  to  the  in  visible  world.  The  su- 
pernatural laid  hold  of  men's  minds  with  mighty  ener- 
gy. Man,  as  the  son  of  heaven,  became  a  stranger  upon 
this  eacth,  and  esteemed  the  splendor  of  this  world  as 
of  little  value.  The  world  in  all  its  beauty  had  been 
tested  by  antiquity,  and  had  not  afforded  the  lasting 
peace  promised  of  it.  Heaven  now  took  its  place,  and 
the  citizen  of  heaven  displaced  in  a  measure  the  citizen 
of  earth.  This  one-sided  apprehension  of  man  as  a 
heavenly  being,  this  complete  sway  of  the  transcendent- 
al, forms  the  leading  characteristic  of  the  world  before 
the  Reformation,  in  which  period  Christianity  appeared 
as  an  abnegation  of  the  world.  Only  the  world  of  re- 
ligion is  truth.  The  natural  world  is  destitute  of  worth, 
and  escape  from  it  is  the  end  of  life.  Hence  the  world- 
disowning  asceticism,  fasting,  celibacy." 

This  ascetic,  transcendental  movement  very  soon 
found  advocates  among  the  most  influential  of  the 
Church  fathers.  As  early  as  the  beginning  of  the  third 
century,  Tertullian,  presbyter  of  Carthage,  attempted  to 
exclude  the  Church  from  all  intercourse  with  the  world. 


96     CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  BEFORE  THE  REFORMATION. 

He  rejected  the  study  of  heathen  philosophy  and  litera- 
ture as  destructive  of  Christian  simplicity,  and  promo- 
tive  of  pride,  overwiseness,  and  immorality.  "If  sci- 
ence and  literature  delight  you,"  he  says,  "  we  have  an 
abundance  of  verses,  sentences,  and  songs ;  no  fables,  but 
truth,  no  artistic  melodies,  but  simplicity.  ...  If  you 
seek  science,  we  have  it,  but  not  from  Athens.  What 
has  Athens  to  do  with  Jerusalem,  the  Academy  with  the 
Church  ?  Our  doctrine  comes  from  the  porch  of  Solo- 
mon, according  to  whose  teaching  the  Lord  is  to  be 
sought  in  simplicity  of  heart.  We  need  not  investigate 
further  after  we  have  found  Christ ;  we  need  not  seek 
further  after  we  have  received  the  gospel." 

Says  Chrysostom,  a  distinguished  Church  father  of 
the  fourth  century :  "  Parents  ought  to  give  their  chil- 
dren a  name  having  a  Christian  signification,  in  order 
that  it  may  subsequently  be  a  source  of  good  influence. 
.  .  .  Mothers  ought  to  care  for  the  bodies  of  their  chil- 
dren, but  it  is  necessary  also  that  they  inspire  their  off- 
spring with  love  for  the  good  and  with  fear  toward 
God.  And  fathers  will  not  limit  themselves  to  giving 
their  children  an  earthly  vocation,  but  will  interest 
themselves  also  in  their  heavenly  calling.  The  most 
beautiful  heritage  that  can  be  given  children  is  to  teach 
them  to  govern  their  passions.  Never  ought  they  to 
hear  licentious  conversation  at  home.  Let  us  take  care 
to  develop  modesty  in  them,  for  nothing  torments  youth 
so  much  as  what  is  contrary  thereto.  Let  us  have  for 
our  children  the  same  fear  that  we  have  for  our  houses, 
when  servants  go  with  a  light  into  places  where  there  is 
inflammable  material,  as  hay  or  straw.  They  should  not 
be  permitted  to  go  where  the  fire  of  impurity  may  be 


EDUCATION  DURING  THE  MIDDLE  AGES.  97 

kindled  in  their  hearts  and  do  them  an  irreparable  in- 
jury. A  knowledge  of  the  Scriptures  is  an  antidote 
against  the  unreasonable  inclinations  of  youth  and 
against  the  reading  of  pagan  authors,  in  which  heroes, 
the  slaves  of  every  passion,  are  lauded.  The  lessons  of 
the  Bible  are  springs  that  water  the  soul.  As  our 
children  are  everywhere  surrounded  with  bad  examples, 
the  monastic  schools  are  the  best  for  their  education. 
Bad  habits  once  contracted,  they  can  not  be  got  rid  of. 
This  is  the  reason  God  conducted  Israel  into  the  wilder- 
ness, as  into  a  monastery,  that  the  vices  of  the  Egyptians 
might  be  unlearned.  And  yet  the  Israelites  were  con- 
tinually falling  into  their  old  habits!  Now  our  chil- 
dren are  surrounded  by  vice  in  our  cities  and  are  unable 
there  to  resist  bad  examples.  In  the  monasteries,  they 
do  not  see  bad  examples ;  they  lead  there  a  holy  life  in 
peace  and  tranquillity.  Let  us  take  care  of  the  souls  of 
our  children,  that  they  may  be  formed  for  virtue,  and 
not  be  degraded  by  vice." 

The  same  one-sided  religious  tendency  comes  out 
strongly  in  the  long  and  interesting  letter  of  St.  Jerome 
to  Laeta,  a  friend  of  his,  upon  the  education  of  her 
daughter.  He  lived  in  the  latter  half  of  the  fourth 
century.  A  single  extract  will  suffice  to  indicate  the 
spirit  of  the  whole  letter.  "Let  the  companion  she 
chooses,"  he  says,  "be  not  well-dressed  or  beautiful,  or 
with  a  voice  of  liquid  harmony ;  but  grave,  and  pale, 
and  meanly  clad,  and  of  solemn  countenance.  Set  over 
her  an  aged  virgin,  of  approved  faith,  and  modesty,  and 
conduct,  to  teach  and  habituate  her,  by  her  own  exam- 
ple, to  rise  up  by  night  for  prayer  and  psalms,  to  sing 
her  morning  hymns,  and  to  take  her  place  in  the  ranks, 
5 


98      CHRISTIAN   EDUCATION  BEFORE   THE   REFORMATION. 

like  a  Christian  warrior,  at  the  third,  and  sixth,  and 
ninth  hours  ;  and,  again,  to  light  her  lamp  and  offer  up 
her  evening  sacrifice.  Let  the  day  pass,  and  the  night 
find  her  at  this  employment.  Prayer  and  reading, 
reading  and  prayer,  must  be  the  order  of  her  life ;  nor 
will  time  travel  slowly  when  it  is  filled  by  such  engage- 
ments." 

The  ascetic  tendency  found  an  ardent  representa- 
tive in  St.  Augustine,  who  has  been  called  the  Paul  of 
the  fifth  century.  With  great  vehemence  he  rejects  all 
heathen  science  in  Christian  education.  "  Those  end- 
less and  godless  fables,"  he  says,  "  with  which  the  pro- 
ductions of  conceited  poets  swarm  by  no  means  accord 
with  our  freedom ;  neither  do  the  bombastic  and  pol- 
ished falsehoods  of  the  orator,  nor  finally  the  wordy 
subtilties  of  the  philosopher.  God  forbid  that  trifles 
and  foolishness,  windy  buffoonery,  and  inflated  false- 
hood should  ever  be  properly  called  science ! "  Again 
he  says :  "  A  young  man  exclaims,  in  reading  a  scene  of 
Terence,  '  What !  is  it  not  permitted  us  to  do  what  the 
gods  dare  to  do?'  This  reasoning  is  carried  on  by 
many  young  people.  We  learned  beautiful  words  in 
our  authors,  but  we  learned  more  easily  to  commit  bad 
actions.  Intoxicated  pagan  masters  made  us  drink  in 
the  cup  of  error,  and  beat  us  when  we  refused.  Was 
there  then  no  other  means  to  teach  us  our  language  and 
to  cultivate  our  mind  ? " 

It  would  be  a  mistake,  however,  to  suppose  that  all 
the  fathers  of  the  Church  shared  this  narrow  spirit. 
There  were  not  wanting  those  who  held  broader  and 
juster  views,  and  who  advocated  an  education  that  com- 
prehended the  valuable  elements  of  heathen  culture. 


EDUCATION  DURING  THE  MIDDLE  AGES.  99 

For  example,  Basil  the  Great,  of  the  fourth  century, 
says :  "  In  the  combat  which  we  have  to  deliver  for  the 
Church,  we  ought  to  be  armed  with  every  resource,  and 
to  this  end  the  reading  of  poets,  historians,  and  orators 
is  very  useful.  .  .  .  We  may  compare  the  lessons  of 
holy  Scripture  to  the  fruits  of  a  tree,  and  the  produc- 
tions of  pagan  wisdom  to  the  foliage  which  shelters  the 
fruit  and  gives  grace  to  the  tree.  .  .  .  Moses  cultivated 
his  intelligence  by  studying  the  science  of  the  Egyp- 
tians, and  Daniel  adorned  his  mind  with  that  of  the 
Chaldeans.  .  .  .  But  there  is  a  choice  to  be  made  among 
pagan  authors.  It  is  necessary  to  close  the  ear  to  bad 
reading,  as  Ulysses  did  to  the  seductive  songs  of  the 
sirens.  The  habit  of  reading  bad  actions  leads  to  doing 
bad  acts.  It  is  necessary  to  reject  the  shameful  stories 
of  the  gods,  as  we  are  to  shun  the  voluptuous  music  of 
the  pagans." 

(A.)    MONASTIC   SCHOOLS. 

Under  the  impulse  of  asceticism,  monasteries  were 
rapidly  multiplied.  By  the  seventh  century  they  were 
scattered  throughout  all  the  countries  that  had  once 
composed  the  Koman  Empire.  The  Benedictine  order, 
founded  in  the  sixth  century,  was  the  largest  and  most 
influential  brotherhood.  As  long  as  the  monasteries  re- 
tained their  purity  they  were  in  many  respects  sources 
of  blessing  to  the  world.  They  became  asylums  for  the 
oppressed;  fortresses  against  violence;  missionary  sta- 
tions for  the  conversion  of  heathen  communities;  re- 
positories of  learning ;  homes  for  the  arts  and  sciences. 
They  preserved  and  transmitted  to  later  ages  much  of 
the  learning  of  antiquity. 


100  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  BEFORE  THE  REFORMATION. 

As  the  heathen  schools  had  now  disappeared,  the 
monasteries  engaged  in  educational  work.     The  Church 
regarded  education  as  one  of  its  exclusive  functions,  and 
under  its  direction  nearly  all  instruction  had  a  theologi- 
cal or  ecclesiastical  aim.     Purely  secular  studies  were 
pursued   only  in  the  interests  of  the   Church.     The 
course  of  instruction  in  the  convent  or  monastic  schools 
embraced  the  so-called  seven  liberal  arts,  which  were 
divided  into  two  classes :  the  tri/vium  included  Latin 
grammar,  dialectic  or  logic,  and  rhetoric ;  and  the  quad- 
rivium,  arithmetic,  geometry,  astronomy,  and  music. 
Reading  and  writing  were  included  in  grammar,  and 
arithmetic  and  music  were  sometimes  substituted  for 
the  other  studies  of  the  trwium,  which  was  the  first 
and  most  popular  course.     Seven  years  were  devoted  to 
the  completion  of  the  course  in  liberal  arts.     Latin,  the 
language  of  the  Church,  was  made  the  basis  of  educa- 
tion, to  the  universal  neglect  of  the  mother-tongue. 
The  works  of  the  Church  fathers  were  chiefly  read, 
though  expurgated  copies  of  the  Latin  classics  were 
used.     Dialectic  or  logic  was  based  somewhat  remotely 
on  the  writings  of  Aristotle.     At  a  later  period,  logic 
was  rigidly  applied  to  the  development  of  theology,  and 
gave  rise  to  a  class  of  scholars  called  the  school-men. 
These  busied  themselves  with  theological  and  philo- 
sophical subtilties,  many  of  which  now  appear  ridicu- 
lous.    The  works  of   Quintilian  and  Cicero,  or  later 
works  based  upon  them,  were  used  in  rhetoric.     Arith- 
metic was  imperfectly  taught,  importance  being  attached 
to  the  supposed  secret  properties  of  numbers.     Geome- 
try was  taught  in  an  abridged  form,  while  astronomy 
did  not  differ  materially  from  astrology.     The  study  of 


EDUCATION  DURING  THE  MIDDLE  AGES.  1Q1 

music  consisted  chiefly  in  learning  to  chant  the  hymns 
of  the  Church. 

The  relation  in  which  these  liberal  studies  stood  to 
theology  is  thus  indicated  by  Rhabanus  Maurus,  an  edu- 
cational writer  of  the  early  part  of  the  ninth  century : 
"  Grammar  teaches  us  to  understand  the  old  poets  and 
historians,  and  also  to  speak  and  write  correctly.    "With- 
out it,  one  can  not  understand  the  figures  and  unusual 
modes  of  expression  in  the  holy  Scriptures,  and  conse- 
quently can  not  grasp  the  right  sense  of  the  divine 
Word.     Even  prosody  should  not  be  neglected,  because 
so  many  kinds  of  versification  occur  in  the  Psalms; 
hence,  industrious  reading  of  the  old  heathen  poets  and 
repeated  exercise  in  the  art  of  poetic  composition  are 
not  to  be  neglected.     But  the  old  poets  should  be  pre- 
viously and  carefully  expurgated,  that  nothing  may  re- 
main in  them  that  refers  to  love  and  love-affairs  and  the 
heathen  gods.     Rhetoric,  which  teaches  the  different 
kinds  and  principal  parts  of  discourse,  together  with  the 
rules  belonging  to  them,  is  important  only  for  such 
youths  as  have  not  more  serious  studies  to  pursue,  and 
should  be  learned  only  from  the  holy  fathers.     Dialec- 
tic, on  the  contrary,  is  the  queen  of  arts  and  sciences. 
In  it  reason  dwells,  and  is  manifested  and  developed. 
It  is  dialectic  alone  that  can  give  knowledge  and  wis- 
dom ;   it  alone  shows  what  and  whence  we  are,  and 
teaches  us  our  destiny ;  through  it  we  learn  to  know 
good  and  evil.     And  how  necessary  is  it  to  a  clergyman, 
in  order  that  he  may  be  able  to  meet  and  vanquish 
heretics !     Arithmetic  is  important  on  account  of  the 
secrets  contained  in  its  numbers ;  the  Scriptures  also 
encourage  its  study,  since  they  speak  of  numbers  and 


102   CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  BEFORE   THE   REFORMATION. 

measures.  Geometry  is  necessary,  because  in  Scripture 
circles  of  all  kinds  occur  in  the  building  of  the  ark  and 
Solomon's  temple.  Music  and  astronomy  are  required 
in  connection  with  divine  service,  which  can  not  be 
celebrated  with  dignity  and  decency  without  music,  nor 
on  fixed  and  definite  days  without  astronomy." 

(B.)    CATHEDEAL   AND   PAROCHIAL    SCHOOLS. 

Besides  the  convent  or  monastic  schools,  there  were 
two  other  classes  of  schools  that  owed  their  origin  to 
the  Church  during  the  middle  ages.  They  were  the 
cathedral  and  the  parochial  schools.  The  cathedral 
schools,  though  previously  existing  to  some  extent,  re- 
ceived their  perfected  organization  through  Bishop 
Chrodegang  in  the  eighth  century.  The  priests  con- 
nected with  each  cathedral  church  were  organized  into 
a  monastic  brotherhood,  one  of  whose  foremost  duties 
was  to  establish  and  conduct  schools.  These  were  de- 
signed chiefly  for  the  instruction  of  candidates  for  the 
priesthood,  but  were,  at  the  same  time,  accessible  to 
others.  The  instruction  in  these  schools  was  very  much 
the  same  as  in  the  convent-schools,  embracing  the  seven 
liberal  arts,  but  laying  a  little  more  stress  on  religious 
subjects. 

The  parochial  schools  were  established  in  the  sepa- 
rate parishes  under  the  supervision  of  the  priest.  They 
were  designed  to  acquaint  the  youth  with  the  elements 
of  Christian  doctrine,  to  prepare  them  for  intelligent 
participation  in  public  worship,  and  especially  to  intro- 
duce them  into  church-membership.  Their  function 
was  similar  to  that  of  the  catechetical  schools  of  the 
primitive  Church.  Reading  and  writing  did  not  usually 


EDUCATION  DURING  THE  MIDDLE  AGES.  1Q3 

form  any  part  of  the  course  of  study.  The  discipline  in 
these,  as  in  all  the  other  schools  of  the  middle  ages, 
was  rough  and  severe,  the  rod  being  unsparingly 
used. 

Neander  thus  speaks  of  the  interest  of  the  Church  in 
the  instruction  of  the  people :  "  The  third  Council  of 
Yalence  in  855  decreed  in  its  sixteenth  canon  that  every 
bishop  should  either  in  person,  or  by  the  agency  of  well- 
instructed  ministers  of  the  Church,  so  administer  the 
word  of  preaching,  both  in  the  city  and  in  the  country 
churches,  that  there  should  be  no  want  of  wholesome 
exhortation  for  the  people ;  for  when  God's  Word  is  not 
furnished  to  the  faithful,  the  soul  is  deprived  of  the  ele- 
ment of  its  life.  Herard,  Bishop  of  Tours,  in  his  pas- 
toral instructions  written  in  the  year  858,  directed  that 
the  priests  should  expound  before  all  the  faithful  the 
doctrines  of  the  incarnation  of  the  Son  of  God  ;  of  his 
passion,  his  resurrection,  and  ascension  ;  of  the  effusion 
of  the  Holy  Spirit,  and  the  forgiveness  of  sins  to  be  ob- 
tained through  the  same  Spirit,  and  the  baptism  into 
the  bosom  of  the  Church ;  that  they  should  warn  people 
against  sins,  particularly  sins  of  the  grosser  sort,  and  in- 
struct them  in  the  nature  of  the  virtues.  .  .  .  The  ne- 
cessity of  establishing  schools  for  the  promotion  of 
religious  instruction  and  of  the  prerequisite  culture 
was  also  acknowledged.  In  the  year  859  the  Council 
of  Langres  and  the  Council  of  Savonnieres  decreed 
that,  wherever  God  raised  up  able  men  for  teachers,  all 
suitable  efforts  should  be  made  to  found  public  schools, 
so  that  the  fruits  of  both  kinds  of  knowledge,  spiritual 
and  secular,  might  grow  in  the  Church ;  for  it  is  a  lam- 
entable fact,  and  a  most  disastrous  evil,  that  the  true 


104  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION   BEFORE  THE   REFORMATION. 

understanding  of  Scripture  has  already  become  so  far 
lost  that  the  lingering  remains  of  it  are  now  scarcely  to 
be  found.  .  .  .  But  the  defects  we  have  already  noticed 
in  the  constitution  of  the  Church  were  the  true  reason 
why  a  sufficient  number  of  the  clergy  were  never  to  be 
found  capable,  or  inclined  to  study  and  apply  these  in- 
structions. The  majority  of  the  clergy  who  came  in 
immediate  contact  with  the  people  possessed  no  other 
qualification  for  their  office  than  a  certain  skill  and  ex- 
pertness  in  performing  the  ceremonies  of  the  Church. 
The  liturgical  element  would  thus  of  necessity  tend 
continually  to  acquire  an  undue  predominance,  suiting 
as  it  did  the  prevalent  idea  of  the  priesthood ;  while  the 
didactic  element — an  element  so  important  for  promot- 
ing the  religious  knowledge  which  was  so  neglected 
among  the  people — would,  on  the  other  hand,  retreat 
more  and  more  into  the  background." 

(c.)    CHARLEMAGNE. 

The  labors  of  Charlemagne  for  the  moral  and  intel- 
lectual elevation  of  his  people  were  intelligent  and  fruit- 
ful. He  sought  to  multiply  educational  facilities  on  a 
large  scale  ;  and  he  even  went  so  far  as  to  contemplate 
the  organization  of  a  popular  school  system.  He  en- 
deavored to  enlist  the  interest  of  the  clergy  and  monks 
in  education,  as  they  were  at  this  time  the  chief  repre- 
sentatives of  learning.  He  opposed  their  worldliness 
and  immorality,  and  exacted  a  faithful  discharge  of  their 
duties.  The  monasteries  and  bishops  were  urged  to  im- 
prove the  schools  already  existing,  and  to  establish  new 
ones  wherever  needed.  The  sphere  of  the  parochial 
schools  was  enlarged ;  and  the  village  priests  were  re- 


EDUCATION  DURING  THE  MIDDLE  AGES.  105 

quired  to  teach  not  only  religion,  but  also  reading,  arith- 
metic, and  singing. 

Charlemagne  thus  speaks  in  a  circular  letter  ad- 
dressed to  the  bishops  and  convents:  "We  esteem  it 
useful  not  only  that  care  should  be  exercised  to  live  or- 
derly and  religiously  in  the  bishoprics  and  monasteries 
intrusted  to  our  care  by  the  grace  of  God,  but  also  that 
all  those  who  by  God's  help  are  able  to  teach  should 
give  instruction  in  the  sciences.  For  although  it  is  bet- 
ter to  do  than  to  know,  yet  it  is  necessary  to  know  in 
order  to  be  able  to  do.  .  .  .  Hence,  we  admonish  you 
not  only  not  to  neglect  the  study  of  the  sciences,  but 
also  to  strive  after  the  ability  to  fathom  easily  and  cer. 
tainly  the  secrets  of  holy  Scripture.  But,  since  there 
are  in  the  same  allegories,  figures,  and  the  like,  it  is  evi- 
dent that  he  will  best  understand  them  in  their  true 
spiritual  sense  who  is  well  instructed  in  the  sciences. 
Hence,  let  men  be  chosen  for  such  work  who  possess 
willingness  and  ability  to  learn,  and  art  to  teach." 

Charlemagne  exhibited  a  great  thirst  for  knowledge, 
and  was  himself  a  model  of  diligence  in  study.  He  in- 
vited to  his  court  from  all  parts  of  Europe  the  most  dis- 
tinguished scholars,  of  whom  Alcuin,  of  England,  the 
most  learned  man  of  his  time,  is  best  known.  With 
these  he  maintained  interesting  and  intimate  relations, 
presiding  at  their  assemblies  and  sharing  in  their  dis- 
cussions. He  established  a  model  school  at  court,  and 
sometimes  visited  it  in  person  to  note  the  progress  of 
the  pupils.  It  is  related  of  him  that  he  once  placed  the 
diligent  pupils  on  his  right,  and  the  idle  ones  on  his 
left ;  and,  when  he  found  that  the  latter  were  chiefly 
sons  of  noble  parents,  he  addressed  them  thus :  "  Be- 


IOC   CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION   BEFORE   THE  REFORMATION. 

cause  you  are  rich  and  the  sons  of  noblemen,  you  think 
that  your  riches  and  birth  are  enough,  and  that  you 
have  no  need  of  those  studies  which  would  do  you  so 
much  honor.  You  think  only  of  dress,  play,  and  pleas- 
ure ;  but  I  tell  you  that  I  attach  no  importance  to  this 
nobility  and  wealth  which  bring  you  consideration  ;  and, 
if  you  do  not  speedily  make  up  by  assiduous  study  for 
the  time  you  have  lost  in  frivolity,  never  will  you  obtain 
anything  from  Charles." 

The  educational  activity  stimulated  by  Charlemagne 
largely  died  away  during  the  agitated  reigns  of  his  weak 
and  grasping  successors. 

(D.)    SECULAR   EDUCATION. 

In  the  latter  half  of  the  middle  ages,  secular  edu- 
cation came  into  prominence.  It  assumed  two  direc- 
tions :  the  one  was  the  offspring  of  chivalry,  and  may 
be  termed  knightly  education  ;  the  other  arose  from  the 
business  necessities  of  the  cities,  and  may  be  termed 
burgher  or  town  education.  These  secular  tendencies 
were  in  part  a  reaction  against  the  one-sided  religious 
character  of  the  ecclesiastical  schools,  and  in  part  the 
natural  product  of  peculiar  social  conditions.  What 
these  conditions  were  will  now  be  examined. 

Society  during  the  middle  ages  may  be  divided  into 
three  classes:  ecclesiastics,  embracing  the  clergy  and 
monks ;  warriors,  including  the  nobles  and  knights ;  and 
producers,  comprehending  mechanics,  tradesmen,  and 
peasants.  During  a  great  part  of  the  middle  ages,  the 
ecclesiastics  exerted  a  tyrannical  domination  over  the 
other  two  classes,  holding  in  their  hands,  as  they  did, 
the  keys  of  knowledge  and  salvation.  The  pope  assumed 


EDUCATION  DURING  THE  MIDDLE  AGES.  107 

absolute  temporal  as  well  as  absolute  spiritual  dominion. 
Opposition  to  the  Church  was  punished  with  excom- 
munication ;  sometimes  with  the  interdict,  which  for- 
bade the  exercise  of  every  religious  function  within 
a  given  territory  ;  and,  in  extreme  cases,  with  the 
crusade,  which  exposed  whole  provinces  to  utter  de- 
struction. 

"With  the  crusades,  during  which  great  multitudes 
rushed  with  fanatical  zeal  to  the  Holy  Land  to  rescue 
the  sepulchre  of  our  Lord  from  Mohammedan  hands, 
there  began  a  noteworthy  change  in  the  social  relations 
of  Europe.  The  crusades,  though  at  an  almost  incredi- 
ble cost  of  life,  contributed  largely  to  the  progress  of 
civilization.  They  enlarged  the  contracted  sphere  of 
human  knowledge.  Foreign  lands,  and  new  customs, 
sciences,  and  arts  were  introduced  into  the  circle  of 
popular  thought.  The  knightly  class  was  brought  into 
a  new  importance,  was  largely  increased  in  numbers, 
and  admirably  ennobled  in  its  aims.  The  crusades  led 
to  the  emancipation  of  many  serfs,  and  elevated  them  to 
the  rank  of  free  peasants.  They  quickened  commerce, 
trade,  and  manufacture ;  increased  and  strengthened  the 
burgher  class ;  and  extended  the  power  and  influence  of 
the  cities.  The  knightly  and  burgher  classes  attained 
to  a  feeling  of  self-consciousness  and  independence. 
They  emancipated  themselves,  to  some  extent  at  least, 
from  ecclesiastical  tutelage  ;  and  this  naturally  led  to  a 
change  in  education. 

(E.)    KNIGHTLY   EDUCATION. 

Knightly  education  stood  in  the  sharpest  contrast 
with  that  of  the  Church.     It  attached  importance  to 


108   CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  BEFORE  THE  REFORMATION. 

what  the  Church  schools  neglected  and  condemned. 
Physical  culture  received  great  attention  ;  polished  man- 
ners were  carefully  cultivated ;  and  a  love  of  glory  was 
constantly  instilled.  "Women  were  held  in  worshipful 
regard  as  the  embodiment  of  honor  and  virtue.  The 
native  tongue  was  cultivated.  Nature  was  not  made  to 
stand  in  unnatural  opposition  to  spiritual  interests,  but, 
on  the  contrary,  inspired  the  noblest  sentiments  and 
purest  joys. 

Knightly  education  was  usually  divided  into  three 
equal  periods.  For  the  first  seven  years,  the  young 
candidate  for  knighthood  remained  in  the  paternal  castle 
under  the  care  of  his  mother.  After  that  age,  he  was 
usually  sent  to  live  with  some  friendly  knight,  where,  in 
constant  attendance  upon  the  chatelaine  or  her  lord,  he 
learned  music,  chess,  and  knightly  manners.  At  four- 
teen he  was  made  squire  or  attendant,  and  his  physical 
and  military  education  became  more  exacting.  Every- 
where, in  the  pleasures  of  the  chase,  the  excitement  of 
tournaments,  and  the  dangers  of  battle,  he  was  the  faith- 
ful companion  of  his  master.  Having  proved  himself 
worthy  during  a  long  probationary  period,  the  young 
squire,  at  the  age  of  twenty-one,  was  formally  elevated, 
with  solemn  and  imposing  ceremonies,  to  the  knightly 
order.  After  a  season  of  fasting  and  prayer,  and  the 
celebration  of  the  Lord's  Supper,  he  took  the  vow  to 
speak  the  truth,  defend  the  right,  honor  womankind, 
and  use  his  sword  against  the  infidels  of  the  East ;  and 
then  he  received,  at  the  hand  of  a  knight  or  noble  lady, 
his  spurs,  gauntlets,  and  suit  of  armor. 

Such  was  the  education  of  the  knight.  Almost  the 
sole  intellectual  element  entering  into  it  was  music  and 


EDUCATION  DURING  THE   MIDDLE  AGES.  1Q9 

poetry.  At  one  time,  this  was  very  prominent;  and 
one  of  the  richest  literary  treasures  coming  down  to  us 
from  the  middle  ages  is  the  large  collection  of  knightly 
songs  comprehended  under  the  term  Minne,  or  love- 
poetry.  These  songs  were  employed,  during  the  long 
nights  of  winter  or  the  prevalence  of  stormy  weather 
and  deep  snows,  to  relieve  the  monotony  of  life  within 
the  castle  walls.  The  newspaper,  works  of  fiction,  the- 
atrical or  literary  entertainments,  and  highly  developed 
music — the  great  resources  of  modern  life  against  ennui 
—were  then  wanting.  Apart  from  tales  of  adventure 
and  a  few  rude  games,  minstrelsy  was  the  only  resource 
left  the  company  of  the  castle.  Accordingly,  they  were 
accustomed  to  gather  at  night  in  the  principal  hall 
around  the  great  log-fire  ;  and  as  the  men  sat  by  their 
ale-cups  or  worked  at  replenishing  their  quivers,  and 
the  ladies  apart  stitched  their  embroidery,  some  knight, 
perhaps  one  just  welcomed  to  friendly  shelter,  took  up 
the  lute,  and,  with  rude  accompaniment,  poured  forth 
song  after  song,  or  related  by  the  hour  his  rhythmical 
tales. 

As  a  specimen  of  the  Minne-songs — the  most  beau- 
tiful flower  of  knightly  education — the  following  lines 
will  suffice : 

The  woodlands  with  my  songs  resound, 

As  still  I  seek  to  gain 
The  favor  of  that  lady  fair 

Who  causeth  all  my  pain. 

My  fate  is  like  the  nightingale's, 

That  singeth  all  night  long, 
While  still  the  woodlands  mournfully 

But  echo  back  her  Bong. 


HO   CHRISTIAN   EDUCATION  BEFORE   THE   REFORMATION. 

What  care  the  wild  woods,  as  they  wave, 

For  all  the  songster's  pains  ? 
"Who  gives  her  the  reward  of  thanks 

For  all  her  tuneful  strains  ? 

In  dull  and  mute  ingratitude 
Her  sweetest  songs  they  hear ; 

Their  tenants  roam  the  desert  wild, 
And  want  no  music  there. 


(F.)   BUEGHER   SCHOOLS. 

The  growth  of  the  cities  and  the  increasing  power 
of  the  trading  and  artisan  classes  have  already  been 
noticed.  "With  the  growing  importance  of  these  two 
classes,  there  came  the  conscious  need  of  an  education 
that  would  have  immediate  reference  to  the  practical 
wants  of  life.  Reading,  writing,  and  arithmetic  were 
indispensable.  Out  of  this  need  arose  a  class  of  schools 
which  have  borne  different  names,  as  town,  burgher, 
or  writing  schools.  In  addition  to  the  elementary 
studies  just  mentioned,  geography,  history,  and  natural 
science  were  pursued,  in  a  small  way,  in  connection 
with  the  mother-tongue.  Latin  also  was  early  intro- 
duced. Notwithstanding  the  fact  that  the  burgher 
schools  were  secular  institutions,  both  in  origin  and  aim, 
the  clergy  as  the  only  authorized  teachers  claimed  the 
right  to  control  them.  This  claim,  which  was  often 
resisted  by  the  civil  magistrates,  frequently  occasioned 
strife,  in  which  sometimes  the  one  party  and  sometimes 
the  other  was  successful.  Where  the  civil  authorities 
maintained  ascendency,  they  appointed  teachers  whose 
duties  were  prescribed  by  a  contract.  The  principal 
teachers,  who  were  engaged  for  one  year  at  a  time,  em- 


EDUCATION  DURING  THE  MIDDLE  AGES.  Ill 

ployed  and  paid  their  assistants.  The  salaries  were  so 
small  that  they  barely  sufficed  to  procure  the  necessaries 
of  life.  The  teachers  generally  led  a  wandering  life, 
moving  from  city  to  city  in  search  of  employment.  The 
itinerant  teacher,  known  as  bacchant  or  vagrant,  was 
sometimes  accompanied  by  a  crowd  of  pupils  called  A 
B  C  shooters,  whose  habits  of  purloining  fowls  and 
other  articles  of  food  did  not  contribute  to  their  popu- 
larity, nor  to  the  elevation  of  the  profession  of  teaching. 
As  there  were  no  school-houses  at  this  period,  instruc- 
tion was  given  in  churches,  municipal  buildings,  or 
other  houses  rented  for  the  purpose.  The  first  school- 
house  was  built  in  Berne,  in  1481. 

(O.)   FEMALE   EDUCATION. 

During  the  middle  ages,  female  education,  outside 
of  the  knightly  order,  was  generally  neglected.  Here 
and  there,  in  connection  with  nunneries,  a  few  women 
attained  distinction  by  their  learning,  but  these  cases 
were  exceptional.  Among  the  knightly  class,  where 
women  were  held  in  high  honor,  great  attention  was 
paid  to  female  culture.  Not  only  were  the  young  women 
instructed  in  the  feminine  arts  of  sewing,  knitting,  em- 
broidery, and  housekeeping,  but  they  also  received  an 
intellectual  training  which,  in  addition  to  reading  and 
writing,  often  included  an  extended  acquaintance  with 
French  and  Latin. 

The  peasant  class,  during  all  this  period,  were  almos 
entirely  neglected.     The  only  provision  made  for  their 
instruction  was  in  the  parochial  schools,  which  were  de- 
voted almost  exclusively,  as  we  have  seen,  to  religious 
instruction.     The  peasants  were  indeed  wanting  in  the 


112   CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  BEFORE   THE  REFORMATION. 

educational  impulse.  They  failed  to  see  how  education 
would  help  them  in  their  drudging  toil,  and  hence  were 
not  responsive  to  any  effort  for  their  intellectual  im- 
provement. 

(H.)   BRETHREN   OF   THE   COMMON   LIFE. 

In  the  fourteenth  century  a  brotherhood,  founded  by 
Gerhard  Groot,  and  known  as  Hieronymians,  or  Brethren 
of  the  Common  Life,  devoted  themselves  to  the  work  of 
education,  with  special  reference  to  the  poorer  classes. 
Without  assuming  monastic  vows,  the  members  of  this 
brotherhood  led  a  life  of  purity,  and  labored  with  un- 
selfish devotion  for  the  good  of  others.  Establishing  a 
community  of  goods,  they  supported  themselves  by  the 
work  of  their  own  hands.  By  its  pure  and  self-sacrificing 
life,  the  brotherhood  rapidly  grew  in  popular  favor,  was 
extensively  patronized,  received  papal  recognition  and 
protection,  and  soon  spread  over  the  northern  part  of 
Germany.  It  maintained  its  existence  till  the  sixteenth 
century. 

Special  emphasis  was  laid  upon  religious  education, 
as  will  be  seen  from  the  following  words  of  the  founder : 
"  Spend  no  time  either  on  geometry,  arithmetic,  rhetoric, 
logic,  grammar,  poetry,  or  astrology.  All  these  branches" 
Seneca  rejects ;  how  much  more,  then,  should  a  spirit- 
ually-minded Christian  pass  them  by,  since  they  sub- 
serve in  no  respect  the  life  of  faith  !  Of  the  sciences  of 
the  pagans,  their  ethics  may  not  be  so  scrupulously 
avoided,  since  this  was  the  special  field  of  the  wisest  of 
them,  as  Socrates  and  Plato.  That  which  does  not  im- 
prove a  man,  or,  at  least,  does  not  reclaim  him  from 
evil,  is  positively  hurtful.  Neither  ought  we  to  read 


EDUCATION   DURING  THE  MIDDLE  AGES.  H3 

pagan  books,  nor  indeed  the  Holy  Scriptures,  in  order 
merely  to  penetrate  into  the  mysteries  of  Nature  by  that 
means."  Practically,  however,  the  order  departed  con- 
siderably from  this  religious  narrowness,  and  devoted 
itself  not  simply  to  the  elementary  instruction  of  the 
people,  but  also  to  the  higher  education.  The  two  most 
celebrated  members  of  this  order  were  Thomas  a  Kem- 
pis,  and  Nicholas  Cusanus,  who  interested  himself  with 
success  in  educational  work,  as  well  as  in  reformatory 
measures  for  abuses  in  the  Church. 

"  In  the  schools  of  the  brotherhood,"  says  Johannes 
Janssen,  a  painstaking  Catholic  writer,  "  Christian  edu- 
cation was  placed  high  above  the  mere  acquisition  of 
knowledge,  and  the  practical  religious  culture  of  the 
youth,  the  nurture  and  confirmation  of  active  piety,  was 
considered  the  chief  object.  All  the  instruction  was 
penetrated  with  a  Christian  spirit,  and  the  pupil  learned 
to  regard  religion  as  the  most  important  human  in- 
terest, and  the  foundation  of  all  true  culture.  At 
the  same  time,  a  considerable  amount  of  knowledge 
and  a  good  method  of  study  were  imparted,  and  the 
pupil  acquired  an  earnest  love  for  literary  and  scientific 
activity.  From  all  quarters  studious  youth  poured  into 
these  schools." 

(l.)    THE   SCIENTIFIC    SPIRIT. 

But  a  single  point  remains  to  be  considered  to  com- 
plete our  review  of  education  in  the  middle  ages.  This 
is  the  growth  of  the  scientific  spirit.  To  the  awakening 
of  this  spirit,  two  principal  causes  contributed.  The 
first  of  these  was  the  increase  of  human  knowledge 
growing  out  of  the  crusades,  the  growth  of  the  cities, 


114   CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  BEFORE   THE   REFORMATION. 

and  the  social  elevation  of  the  laity ;  the  other  was  the 
influence  of  the  Arabian  or  Mohammedan  schools. 

(j.)    MOHAMMEDAN    LEARNING. 

After  the  establishment  of  Mohammedanism  in  the 
seventh  century,  it  was  carried  by  the  force  of  arms  over 
large  portions  of  Asia,  Africa,  and  Europe.  Empires 
were  established,  in  which  learning  kept  pace  with  po- 
litical power.  The  caliphs  of  Cordova  and  Bagdad  be- 
came rivals  in  their  patronage  of  learning,  no  less  than 
in  political  power  and  ostentatious  luxury.  The  writ- 
ings of  the  Greeks,  especially  those  of  Aristotle  and 
Euclid,  were  translated  into  Arabic.  Flourishing  schools 
were  established  in  all  the  principal  cities,  notably  at 
Bagdad  and  Damascus  in  the  East,  and  at  Cordova, 
Salamanca,  and  Toledo  in  the  "West.  Here  grammar, 
mathematics,  astronomy,  philosophy,  chemistry,  and 
medicine  were  pursued  with  great  ardor  and  success. 
The  Arabians  originated  chemistry,  discovering  alcohol, 
and  nitric  and  sulphuric  acids.  They  gave  algebra  and 
trigonometry  their  modern  forms;  applied  the  pendu- 
lum to  the  reckoning  of  time ;  ascertained  the  size  of 
the  earth  by  measuring  a  degree,  and  made  catalogues 
of  the  stars.  For  a  time,  they  were  the  intellectual 
leaders  of  Europe.  Their  schools  in  Spain  were  largely 
attended  by  Christian  youth  from  other  European  coun- 
tries, who  carried  back  with  them  to  their  homes  the 
Arabian  science,  and  through  it  stimulated  intellectual 
activity  in  Christian  nations.  In  the  eleventh  century, 
having  imparted  its  intellectual  treasures  to  the  Christian 
world,  Arabian  learning  began  to  decline,  and  has  since 
fallen  into  utter  insignificance. 


EDUCATION  DURING  THE  MIDDLE  AGES.  H5 

(K.)   KISE   OF  THE   UNIVERSITIES. 

The  richest  fruit  of  this  newly  awakened  scientific 
spirit  in  Europe  was  the  founding  of  the  universities. 
They  arose  independently  of  both  Church  and  state.  In 
the  beginning  they  consisted  of  free  associations  of 
learned  men  and  aspiring  youths,  who  were  held  together 
alone  by  their  mutual  interest  in  science.  In  this  way 
the  University  of  Bologna  had  its  origin  in  the  twelfth 
century  for  the  study  of  law,  and  the  University  of  Sa- 
lerno shortly  afterward  for  the  study  of  medicine.  To- 
ward the  close  of  the  twelfth  century  the  University  of 
Bologna  numbered  no  less  than  twelve  thousand  students, 
most  of  whom  came  from  distant  countries.  During  this 
century  the  cathedral  school  of  Paris  was  enlarged  into 
a  university,  in  which  the  study  of  theology  was  pre- 
dominant. This  became  the  most  distinguished  seat  of 
learning  in  Europe.  At  one  time  it  was  attended  by 
more  than  twenty  thousand  students,  who  for  the  purpose 
of  better  government  were  divided  into  bodies  according 
to  nationality.  They  had  special  halls  called  colleges,  in 
which  they  lodged  and  boarded  under  official  super- 
vision. The  professors  were  divided  into  the  four  fac- 
ulties— philosophy,  theology,  medicine,  and  law — which 
have  since  been  retained  in  universities,  though  the 
studies  in  each  department  have  been  greatly  enlarged. 

The  moral  tone  of  the  universities  was  low ;  there 
were  brawls,  outbreaks,  and  abominable  immoralities. 
"The  students,"  say  the  Vienna  statutes,  "shall  not 
spend  more  time  in  drinking,  fighting,  and  guitar-play- 
ing, than  at  physics,  logic,  and  the  regular  courses  of 
lectures ;  and  they  shall  not  get  up  public  dances  in  the 


116   CHRISTIAN   EDUCATION   BEFORE  THE  REFORMATION. 

streets.  Quarrelers,  wanton  persons,  drunkards,  those 
that  go  about  serenading  at  night,  or  who  spend  their 
leisure  in  following  after  lewd  women ;  thieves,  those 
that  insult  citizens,  players  at  dice — having  been  prop- 
erly warned  and  not  reforming,  besides  the  ordinary 
punishment  provfded  by  law  for  those  misdemeanors, 
shall  be  deprived  of  their  academical  privileges  and  ex- 
pelled." These  prohibitions  give  us  a  clear  insight  into 
the  university  life  of  the  time,  for  it  was  not  worse  at 
Yienna  than  at  Paris  and  elsewhere. 

The  influence  and  power  of  the  universities  were 
speedily  recognized ;  and,  though  originally  free  associ- 
ations, they  were  soon  brought  into  relation  with  the 
Church  and  the  state,  by  which  they  were  officially  au- 
thorized and  endowed  with  privileges.  "  Although  the 
universities  were  free  associations,"  says  Karl  Schmidt, 
"yet  as  intellectual  forces  they  were  soon  drawn  into 
the  various  spheres  of  life,  and  Church  as  well  as  state, 
princes  as  well  as  cities,  rivaled  each  other  in  winning 
their  influence  by  bestowing  favors  upon  them.  First, 
the  Church  sought  to  attach  them  to  itself,  in  order  to 
join  to  the  power  of  faith  the  power  of  knowledge :  the 
first  privileges  that  the  universities  received  proceeded 
from  the  popes.  .  .  .  On  the  other  hand,  the  emperors - 
desired  and  sought  the  development  of  a  free  secular 
culture,  in  order  to  procure  for  their  might  and  power 
an  intellectual  foundation ;  and  they  hastened,  therefore, 
to  circumvent  the  ecclesiastical  influence,  and  to  give 
the  new  universities  an  independent  position.  Thus,  in 
November,  1158,  Frederick  I.  gave  the  University  of 
Bologna  a  privilege,  whereby  the  students  from  abroad 
were  granted  his  protection,  and  a  court  of  their  own 


EDUCATION  DURING  THE  MIDDLE  AGES. 

was  allowed  them.  'For  if  already  all  those  that  do 
good,'  he  says,  l  merit  in  every  way  our  praise  and  pro- 
tection, we  hold  it  proper  with  especial  grace  to  defend 
those  against  all  injury,  whose  science  enlightens  the 
world,  and  teaches  subjects  to  obey  God,  and  us  as  his 
servants.' " 

After  the  establishment,  in  the  twelfth  century,  of 
the  three  universities  already  spoken  of,  similar  institu- 
tions, modeled  particularly  after  the  University  of  Paris, 
sprang  up  in  the  various  countries  of  Europe.  The 
German  universities  of  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth 
centuries  were  founded  in  the  following  order :  Prague, 
1348 ;  Vienna,  1388  ;  Erfurt,  1392 ;  Leipsic,  1409 ;  Kos- 
tock,  1419 ;  Greifswald,  1456 ;  Freiburg,  1457 ;  Ingol- 
stadt,  1472;  Tubingen,  1477;  and  Mayence,  1477. 
Thus,  it  will  be  seen  that  they  were  established  in  quick 
succession — an  unmistakable  proof  of  the  growing  sci- 
entific interest  of  the  age. 

(L.)  SUMMARY. 

Here  our  review  of  education  before  the  Reforma- 
tion must  end.  Education  did  not  have  a  complete  and 
beautiful  development.  It  was  unworthily  enslaved  to 
other  interests,  and  both  in  theory  and  practice  it  showed 
its  servile  condition.  Yet  the  long,  dark  period  of  the 
middle  ages  was  not  without  blessings  for  mankind.  It 
was  the  winter  that  gathers  strength  for  the  blossoming 
of  spring  and  the  fruit-bearing  of  summer.  The  founda- 
tions of  future  progress  were  laid.  The  Germanic  na- 
tions were  placed  in  possession  of  Christianity  and  civ- 
ilization. One-sided  tendencies  worked  themselves  out, 
and  have  since  remained  for  the  instruction  of  our  race. 


US   CHRISTIAN   EDUCATION  BEFORE   THE   REFORMATION. 

The  work  of  this  period  was  largely  negative.  If  the 
middle  ages  have  not  taught  us  what  to  do  in  education, 
they  have  at  least  showed  us  a  good  deal  to  avoid.  And, 
as  the  history  of  our  race  proves,  this  negative  work  has 
always  to  be  done  before  humanity  makes  any  signal 
progress.  Heathenism  had  to  exhaust  its  intellectual 
strength  before  the  world  was  ready  to  accept  Chris- 
tianity. 


IV. 

EDUCATION  FROM  THE  REFORMATION  TO 
THE  PRESENT  TIME. 

THE  Reformation  of  the  sixteenth  century  is  the 
greatest  event  in  modern  history.  Its  vast  influence 
upon  human  development  is  surpassed  only  by  the  ad- 
vent of  Christ.  It  marks  the  close  of  a  long,  dark  night, 
and  dates  a  new  era  in  human  progress. 

It  was  not,  however,  an  isolated  fact.  There  were 
many  concurring  circumstances  which  prepared  the  way 
for  it,  and  gave  it  power  in  the  world.  The  revival  of 
classical  learning,  which  had  its  central  point  in  the 
downfall  of  Constantinople  in  1453,  exerted  a  favorable 
influence.  It  opened  the  literary  treasures  of  Greece 
and  Rome,  provided  a  new  culture  for  the  mind,  awak- 
ened dissatisfaction  with  the  scholastic  teaching  of  the 
Church,  and  tended  to  emancipate  thought  from  sub- 
jection to  ecclesiastical  authority.  The  invention  of 
gunpowder  brought  about  an  important  and  wholesome 
change  in  the  organization  of  society.  It  destroyed  the 
influence  and  power  of  the  knightly  order,  elevated  the 
producing  class,  and  thus  became  a  mighty  leveler.  Be- 
fore this  invention  a  single  knight,  clad  in  a  full  suit 
of  armor,  and  mounted  upon  a  powerful  charger,  was 


120   FROM  THE  EEFORMATION  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME. 

a  match  for  a  whole  company  of  foot-soldiers.  The 
strength  of  armies  was  measured  by  the  number  of 
knights.  But  after  the  invention  of  gunpowder,  in  the 
fourteenth  century,  which  made  the  humblest  footman 
with  a  musket  more  than  a  match  for  the  proudest 
knight,  chivalry  necessarily  declined.  The  discovery  of 
America,  and  of  a  sea-passage  to  the  East  Indies,  exerted 
an  elevating  influence  by  enlarging  the  circle  of  knowl- 
edge. Correct  views  of  the  earth  supplanted  the  Ptole- 
maic system.  The  commercial  activities  of  the  world 
began  to  move  in  new  directions,  and  to  assume  enlarged 
proportions.  But  the  most  important  of  all  was  the  in- 
vention of  printing,  about  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth 
century.  At  once  supplanting  the  tedious  and  costly 
method  of  copying  books  by  hand,  it  multiplied  the 
sources  of  knowledge,  and  brought  them  within  reach 
of  a  larger  circle  of  readers.  Each  of  these  circum- 
stances was  a  lever  to  lift  the  world  up  to  a  higher  plane. 
The  Reformation  broke  the  fetters  yet  holding  it,  and 
started  it  forward  in  a  new  course  of  intellectual,  moral, 
and  religious  development. 

1.  THE  REVIVAL  OF  LEARNING  AND  THE  HUMANISTS. 

The  revival  of  learning  was  so  intimately  related  to 
the  Reformation,  and  to  the  educational  advancement 
dating  from  that  time,  that  it  calls  for  consideration  in 
/  some  detail.  It  had  its  origin  in  Italy.  The  three  great 
Italian  writers  of  the  fourteenth  century — Dante,  Boc- 
caccio, and  Petrarch,  all  of  whom  had  made  a  more  or 
less  profound  study  of  the  ancient  classics — may  be  re- 
garded as  its  pioneers.  The  widely  extended  scientific 


REVIVAL   OF  LEARNING  AND  THE  HUMANISTS. 

spirit,  which  has  already  been  noticed  at  some  length, 
prepared  the  way  for  its  rapid  spread.  The  first  Greek 
to  introduce  the  literary  treasures  of  his  country  into 
Italy  was  Manuel  Chrysoloras,  who  received  from  the 
city  of  Florence,  in  1396,  an  appointment  as  teacher. 
This  was  the  humble  beginning  to  be  followed  by  great 
results.  When  Constantinople  was  captured  by  the 
Turks,  in  14-53,  many  Greek  scholars  took  refuge  in 
Italy.  The  times  were  propitious  for  them.  Noble  and 
wealthy  patronage  was  not  lacking,  and  under  its  foster- 
ing care  they  became  for  a  time  the  teachers  of  Europe. 
They  succeeded  in  kindling  a  remarkable  enthusiasm  for 
antiquity.  Manuscripts  were  collected,  translations  were 
made,  academies  were  established,  and  libraries  were 
founded.  Several  of  the  popes  became  generous  patrons 
of  ancient  learning ;  Nicholas  Y.  founded  the  celebrated 
Vatican  Library,  and  collected  for  it  a  great  number  of 
Greek  and  Latin  manuscripts ;  and  under  Leo  X.  Rome 
became  a  center  of  ancient  learning.  Eager  scholars 
from  England,  France,  and  Germany,  sat  at  the  feet  of 
Italian  masters,  in  order  afterward  to  bear  beyond  the 
Alps  the  precious  seed  of  the  new  culture. 

The  revival  of  letters  produced  different  results  in 
different  countries.  Everywhere  it  contributed  to  the 
emancipation  of  the  human  mind,  but  in  Italy  it  tended 
strongly  to  paganize  its  adherents.  Ardor  for  antiquity 
became  at  last  intoxication.  Infidelity  prevailed  in  the 
highest  ranks  of  the  Church ;  Christianity  was  despised 
as  a  superstition ;  immorality  abounded  in  the  most 
shameful  forms.  The  heathenism  of  Athens  was  re- 
vived in  Christian  Kome.  The  remark  that  Leo  X.  is 
said  to  have  made  to  Cardinal  Bembo  well  accords  with 


122  FROM  THE  REFORMATION  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME. 

the  prevailing  spirit  of  the  time :  "  All  the  world  knows 
how  profitable  this  fable  of  Christ  has  been  to  us."  The 
wide-spread  infidelity  made  it  necessary  for  the  tenth 
Lateran  Council  to  establish  the  doctrine  of  the  immor- 
tality of  the  soul  by  a  special  decree.  When  Luther  was 
dispatched  to  Eome  as  envoy  of  the  Augustine  brother- 
hood, he  was  one  day  at  table  with  several  distinguished 
prelates.  Their  conversation,  as  he  tells  us,  was  impious. 
Among  other  things,  they  boasted  that  at  mass,  instead 
of  the  sacramental  words  which  were  to  transform  the 
bread  and  wine  into  the  body  and  blood  of  our  Saviour, 
they  mockingly  pronounced  over  the  elements,  "  Bread 
thou  art,  and  bread  thou  shalt  remain ;  wine  thou  art, 
and  wine  thou  shalt  remain."  Blasphemy  was  never 
more  shameless. 

The  simple  language  of  the  Scriptures,  which  was 
offensive  to  the  devotees  of  the  ancient  classics,  was  sub- 
ject to  outrageous  parody,  and  its  sublime  truths  were 
translated  into  the  terms  of  heathen  mythology.  The 
Holy  Ghost  was  written  the  "breath  of  the  heavenly 
zephyr " ;  the  expression  to  forgive  sins  was  rendered 
"to  bend  the  manes  and  the  sovereign  gods";  and 
Christ,  the  Son  of  God,  was  changed  into  "Minerva, 
sprung  from  the  head  of  Jupiter."  The  representatives 
of  the  Church,  even  those  of  the  highest  station,  were 
guilty  of  monstrous  crimes.  The  Yatican  became  the 
scene  of  treachery  and  murder,  and  the  dissolute  enter- 
tainments given  in  the  pontifical  palace  surpassed  the 
impure  groves  of  antiquity  in  horrible  licentious- 
ness. 

Such  was  the  state  of  belief  and  morals  prevailing  in 
Home  at  a  time  when  ancient  learning  and  the  fine  arts 


REVIVAL  OP  LEARNING  AND  THE   HUMANISTS.      123 

were  cultivated  in  a  high  degree.  Well  may  Kaumer 
exclaim :  "  How  strangely  united  in  one  and  the  same 
land,  at  one  and  the  same  time,  the  most  splendid  and 
the  most  horrible !  What  an  angelic  child  must  Eaphael 
have  been,  yet  his  childhood  falls  at  the  iniquitous  time 
of  Alexander  VI.  Yea,  how  often  in  one  and  the  same 
hero  of  art  were  united  the  most  beautiful  and  the  most 
hateful,  the  noblest  and  the  most  debased,  pious  devo- 
tion and  detestable  sensuality !  Into  what  sins  he  fell 
and  sank,  when  his  love  for  Nature  and  antiquity  de- 
generated into  unrestrained  and  godless  lust,  and  his  art 
as  his  life  became  truly  pagan ! " 

But  we  gladly  turn  from  Italy  in  order  to  contem- 
plate the  results  that  followed  the  revival  of  learning  in 
Germany.  Fortunately  for  the  world,  the  Germanic 
mind  did  not  lose  its  earnestness  and  depth  in  studying 
the  literary  treasures  of  antiquity.  The  new  learning 
was  cultivated  with  as  much  zeal  in  Germany  as  beyond 
the  Alps,  but  its  results  were  utilized  in  the  interests  of 
a  purer  Christianity.  The  Greek  and  Hebrew  Scriptures 
were  studied  as  well  as  the  classics  of  Greece  and  Rome. 
Critical  editions  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments  were 
published  by  able  scholars,  and  thus  the  means  were  sup- 
plied for  discovering  and  correcting  the  abuses  intro- 
duced into  the  Church  by  the  papacy.  The  traditions  of 
the  middle  ages  were  broken,  dissatisfaction  with  the  ex. 
isting  state  of  the  Church  was  awakened,  and  the  re- 
formers were  supplied  with  an  invincible  weapon.  In 
Italy  the  new  learning  became  a  minister  of  infidelity ; 
in  Germany,  of  religion. 

The  revival  of  learning  in  Germany  led  to  a  bitter 
conflict  with  the  monks.  The  monasteries  at  this  period 


FROM  THE  REFORMATION  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME. 

had  sunk  to  a  wretched  condition.  Instead  of  the  learn- 
ing and  purity  that  characterized  them  in  an  earlier  age, 
they  had  become  nests  of  ignorance  and  depravity.  Sen- 
sual indulgences  had  dulled  the  intellect  and  broken  the 
energies  of  the  body.  "  The  monks  had  a  pleasant  time 
of  it,"  says  Luther ;  "  every  brother  had  two  cans  of 
beer  and  a  quart  of  wine  for  supper,  with  gingerbread, 
to  make  him  take  to  his  liquor  kindly.  Thus  the  poor 
things  came  to  look  like  fiery  angels." 

The  monks,  as  the  representatives  of  the  established 
order  of  things,  scented  danger  in  the  new  learning. 
They  foresaw  that  its  continuance  would  unmask  their 
ignorance,  destroy  their  influence,  and  work  their  ruin  • 
hence,  their  opposition  became  as  desperate  as  it  was 
unintelligent  and  hopeless.  They  protested  that  all 
heresies  originated  in  Hebrew  and  Greek,  particularly  in 
the  latter.  "  The  New  Testament,"  said  one  of  them, 
"is  a  book  full  of  serpents  and  thorns.  Greek  is  a  new 
and  recently  invented  language,  and  we  must  be  upon 
our  guard  against  it.  As  for  Hebrew,  my  dear  breth- 
ren, it  is  certain  that  all  who  learn  it  immediately  be- 
come Jews."  The  monks,  particularly  of  the  Dominican 
order,  pursued  like  beasts  of  prey  various  representatives 
of  the  new  learning.  They  were  met,  however,  with  a 
spirit  of  courage  and  truth  before  which  they  had  to  re- 
coil. Their  ignorance  and  depravity  were  unmasked  by 
Reuchlin  and  Erasmus.  Almost  crushing  was  the  effect 
of  a  satire  known  as  "  The  Letters  of  Obscure  Men," 
and  put  forth  by  a  coterie  of  humanists,  of  whom  Ulric 
von  Hiitten  was  the  leader.  With  irresistible  wit  this 
satire  exposed  the  profligacy,  gross  ignorance,  coarse 
gluttony,  and  blind  fanaticism  of  the  monks.  They 


REVIVAL   OF   LEARNING   AND   THE   HUMANISTS.      125 

staggered  under  the  blow,  and  no  other  attack  so  effectu- 
ally broke  their  hold  upon  the  people. 

There  are  two  or  three  humanists  whose  labors  for 
the  cause  of  learning  and  Christianity  are  worthy  of  con- 
sideration. At  the  same  time,  we  shall  get  further  views 
of  this  conflict  with  the  monks,  and  of  the  sad  condition 
of  the  Church. 

(A.)  AGEICOLA. 

This  able  scholar,  the  father  of  German  humanism, 
was  born,  in  1443,  near  Groningen,  Germany.  His  real 
name  was  Husmann  (that  is,  houseman  or  husbandman), 
which,  according  to  a  custom  of  the  humanists,  he  Lat- 
inized into  Agricola.  For  a  time  he  was  a  pupil  of 
Thomas  a  Kempis ;  then  he  passed  several  years  at  the 
University  of  Louvain ;  subsequently  he  studied  at  Paris, 
and  afterward  in  Italy,  where  he  attended  lectures  of  the 
most  celebrated  literary  men  of  the  age.  His  learning 
and  eloquence  gave  him  a  wide  reputation ;  and,  upon 
his  return  to  Germany,  several  cities  and  courts  vied 
with  one  another  in  the  effort  to  secure  his  services.  At 
length,  upon  the  solicitation  of  Dalberg,  Bishop  of 
"Worms,  who  was  an  old  and  intimate  friend,  he  estab- 
lished himself  at  Heidelberg.  He  divided  his  time  be- 
tween private  studies  and  public  lecturing ;  and,  through 
his  labors  and  influence,  he  was  largely  instrumental  in 
transplanting  the  learning  of  Italy  into  his  native  land. 
"  At  a  time,"  says  Kaumer,  "  when  the  worst  Latin  pre- 
vailed in  Germany,  and  such  a  degree  of  ignorance  that 
good  Latin  was  not  in  the  least  appreciated,  and  bad 
taste  was  admired,  it  was  Agricola  alone  who  began  to 
feel  those  mistakes,  and  to  have  a  desire  for  a  better 


126     FROM  THE  REFORMATION  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME. 

form  of  speech."  He  understood  French  and  Italian, 
and  set  great  store  by  his  mother-tongue.  At  the  age 
of  forty-one  he  began  the  study  of  Hebrew,  in  order  to 
be  able  to  read  the  Old  Testament  in  the  original. 

The  following  extract  will  not  be  without  interest,  as 
showing  Agricola's  opinion  of  the  schools  of  his  time. 
Having  been  called  to  take  charge  of  a  school  at  Ant- 
werp, he  writes :  "  A  school  is  to  be  committed  to  me. 
That  is  a  difficult  and  vexatious  thing.  A  school  is  like 
a  prison,  in  which  there  are  blows,  tears,  and  groans 
without  end.  If  there  is  anything  with  a  contradictory 
name,  it  is  the  school.  The  Greeks  named  it  schola — 
that  is,  leisure ;  the  Latins,  Indus  literarius — literary 
play ;  but  there  is  nothing  further  from  leisure  than  the 
school,  nothing  harder  and  more  opposed  to  play.  More 
correctly  did  it  receive  from  Aristophanes  the  name 
phrontizerion — that  is,  place  of  care." 

He  refused  the  school  offered  him,  but  he  gave  the 
authorities  of  Antwerp  the  following  sensible  advice: 
"  It  is  necessary  to  exercise  the  greatest  care  in  choosing 
a  director  for  your  school.  Take  neither  a  theologian 
nor  a  so-called  rhetorician,  who  thinks  he  is  able  to 
speak  of  everything  without  understanding  anything  of 
eloquence.  Such  people  make  in  school  the  same  figure, 
according  to  the  Greek  proverb,  that  a  dog  does  in  a 
bath.  It  is  necessary  to  seek  a  man  resembling  the 
phoenix  of  Achilles ;  that  is,  who  knows  how  to  teach, 
to  speak,  and  to  act  at  the  same  time.  If  you  know 
such  a  man,  get  him  at  any  price  ;  for  the  matter  involves 
the  future  of  your  children,  whose  tender  youth  receives 
with  the  same  susceptibility  the  impress  of  good  and  of 
bad  examples." 


REVIVAL  OF  LEARNING  AND  THE  HUMANISTS.     127 

In  another  letter  Agricola  has  given  interesting  rules 
in  regard  to  study  :  "  1  advise  you,"  he  says,  "  to  study 
philosophy ;  that  is,  the  science  that  teaches  justness  in 
thought,  and  precision  in  expression.  Philosophy  is 
divided  into  moral  and  natural.  Moral  philosophy  is  to 
be  drawn  not  alone  from  Aristotle,  Cicero,  and  Seneca, 
but  also  from  the  facts  of  history.  Thence  one  rises  to 
the  Bible,  whose  divine  precepts  are  to  serve  as  the  rule 
of  life.  No  other  study  has  recognized  clearly  the  end 
of  life,  and  can  hence  claim  exemption  from  error. 

"Natural  philosophy  is  not  as  necessary  as  moral 
philosophy  ;  it  is  scarcely  more  than  a  means  of  culture. 

"  It  is  necessary  to  study  both  of  these  branches  of 
philosophy  in  the  classic  authors,  in  order  to  learn  at  the 
same  time  the  art  of  speaking  well. 

"  I  advise  you  to  translate  the  classics  into  the  mother- 
tongue  as  exactly  as  possible.  In  this  way  one  learns  to 
find  easily  the  necessary  Latin  expressions  for  what  one 
has  thought  in  his  own  language. 

"  It  is  necessary  to  ponder  well  in  the  mother-tongue 
what  is  to  be  written  in  Latin ;  and,  before  seeking  or- 
naments of  style,  we  should  learn  to  write  correctly. 

"  Whoever  wishes  to  study  with  success  must  exer- 
cise himself  in  these  three  things :  in  getting  clear  views 
of  a  subject ;  in  fixing  in  his  memory  what  he  has  un- 
derstood ;  and  in  producing  something  from  his  own 
resources. 

"  It  is  necessary  to  read  with  care,  and  to  seek  to. 
understand  the  scope  as  well  as  the  details  of  books. 
Nevertheless,  it  is  not  well  to  spend  too  much  time  in 
clearing  up  obscurities ;  one  often  finds  their  elucidation 
further  on.  One  day  gives  light  to  another. 


128     FROM  THE  REFORMATION  TO  TIIE  PRESENT  TIME. 

"  It  is  necessary  to  exercise  one's  self  in  composition ; 
when  we  produce  nothing,  what  we  have  learned  re- 
mains dead.  The  knowledge  that  we  acquire  ought  to 
be  like  seed  sown  in  the  earth,  germinating  and  bearing 
fruit. 

"  But  to  produce,  two  things  are  needed  :  ability  to 
arrange  at  pleasure  the  ideas  committed  to  our  memory, 
and  then  ability  to  deduce  something  new  from  what  we 
already  know. 

"  In  order  to  invent,  it  is  very  important  that  we 
have  general  ideas,  under  which  all  our  knowledge  may 
be  classified.  Then  it  is  a  great  help  to  know  how  to 
analyze  and  consider  a  subject  in  all  its  aspects.  .  .  • 
Whoever  understands  well  these  two  things,  classifica- 
tion and  analysis,  may  attain  to  the  facility  of  speech 
characteristic  of  the  Greek  sophists,  and  speak  extempo- 
raneously upon  a  given  subject  as  long  as  he  wishes." 

(B.)  KEUCHLIN. 

Reuehlin  may  be  justly  regarded  as  the  father  of 
modern  Hebrew  studies.  When  he  published  his  He- 
brew grammar,  in  1506 — the  first  work  of  the  kind  pro- 
duced in  Germany — he  did  not  make  a  mistake  in 
repeating  the  well-known  boast  of  Horace  :  "  Exegi 
monumentum  aere  perennius"  —  "I  have  erected  a 
monument  more  durable  than  brass."  He  was  born  at 
Pforzheim,  Germany,  in  1455.  In  14Y3  he  went  to  the 
University  of  Paris,  where  he  studied  Greek  under  a 
native,  and  made  the  acquaintance  of  John  Wessel.  His 
religious  views  were  molded  to  some  extent  by  Wessel, 
of  whom  Luther  has  said :  "  If  I  had  known  the  writings 
of  Wessel,  my  adversaries  could  say  that  I  have  only 


REVIVAL  OF  LEARNING  AND  THE  HUMANISTS.      129 

followed  him,  so  much  do  our  minds  agree.  I  experience 
great  joy,  and  I  do  not  doubt  the  truth  of  my  teachings, 
when  I  see  how  we  are  constantly  in  harmony,  and  say 
the  same  things  almost  in  the  same  words." 

After  leaving  Paris,  Reuchlin  taught  philosophy, 
Latin,  and  Greek  at  Basel;  subsequently  he  became 
professor  at  Tubingen.  In  1498  he  was  sent  to  Italy  on 
an  embassy ;  and,  on  the  occasion  of  a  solemn  audience 
before  the  papal  court,  he  delivered  an  address  in  such 
admirable  Latin  that  the  pope  exclaimed,  "This  man 
certainly  deserves  to  rank  with  the  best  orators  of  France 
and  Italy ! "  While  in  Koine,  Reuchlin  employed  all  his 
leisure  in  studying  Hebrew  under  a  learned  Jew,  and 
in  collecting  Greek  and  Hebrew  manuscripts.  At  this 
time  Argyropolos,  a  distinguished  Greek,  was  delivering 
lectures  in  Rome  upon  the  literature  of  his  native  coun- 
try. As  Reuchlin  one  day  entered  the  hall  with  a  num- 
ber of  his  friends,  he  was  asked  by  the  lecturer  whence 
he  came,  and  if  he  understood  Greek.  He  replied,  "  I 
am  a  German,  and  not  wholly  unacquainted  with  your 
language."  He  was  given  a  copy  of  "  Thucydides,"  and 
requested  to  explain  it.  This  he  did  with  such  ease  and 
eloquence  that  Argyropolos  exclaimed  in  astonishment, 
"  Our  fugitive  and  exiled  Greece  has  already  fled  beyond 
the  Alps ! " 

The  motive  that  urged  him  to  prosecute  his  studies 
in  Hebrew  is  thus  explained  by  Reuchlin,  in  a  letter  to 
Cardinal  Hadrian:  "I  devoted  myself  to  the  Hebrew 
language  because  I  perceived  the  great  value  which  it 
would  have  for  religion  and  true  theology.  To  this  end 
I  have  always  directed  my  labors,  and  continue  to  direct 
them  more  than  ever.  As  a  true  worshiper  of  our  Lord, 


130     FROM  THE  REFORMATION  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME. 

I  have  done  all  for  the  restoration  and  glorification  of 
the  true  Christian  Church." 

"  But  Reuchlin,"  says  D'Aubigne,  "  endeavored  to 
promote  the  cause  of  truth  as  much  by  his  life  as  by  his 
writings.  By  his  lofty  stature,  his  commanding  person, 
and  his  engaging  address,  he  immediately  gained  the 
confidence  of  all  with  whom  he  had  to  deal.  His  thirst 
for  knowledge  was  only  equaled  by  his  zeal  in  com- 
municating what  he  had  learned.  He  spared  neither 
labor  nor  money  to  introduce  into  Germany  the  editions 
of  the  classic  writers  as  they  issued  from  the  Italian 
presses,  and  thus  the  usher's  son  did  more  to  enlighten 
his  fellow-countrymen  than  rich  corporations  or  mighty 
princes.  His  influence  over  youth  was  very  extensive, 
and  who  can  estimate  all  that  the  Reformation  owes  to 
him  in  that  respect  ? "  Melanchthon,  the  illustrious  col- 
laborator of  Luther,  was  his  adopted  son  and  pupil. 

In  the  year  1510  began  a  prolonged  and  acrimonious 
controversy  about  Hebrew  literature.  A  baptized  Jew- 
ish rabbi,  John  Pfefferkorn,  with  the  zeal  of  a  proselyte, 
appealed  to  the  Emperor  Maximilian  to  have  all  Jewish 
books  except  the  Bible  destroyed.  Reuchlin,  having 
been  solicited  to  give  his  opinion,  advised  the  destruction 
of  only  such  books  as  were  written  against  Christianity. 
"  The  best  way,"  he  added,  "  to  convert  the  Israelites 
would  be  to  establish  two  professors  of  the  Hebrew  lan- 
guage in  each  university,  who  should  teach  the  theolo- 
gians to  read  the  Bible  in  Hebrew,  and  thus  refute  the 
Jewish  doctors."  This  position  exposed  Reuchlin  to  the 
most  virulent  attacks  from  the  monks ;  but  the  friends 
of  learning  rallied  to  his  support,  and  after  nine  years' 
conflict  gave  him  the  victory. 


REVIVAL  OF  LEARNING  AND  THE  HUMANISTS.     131 

Luther  appreciated  tlie  importance  of  Reuchlin's 
work,  and  wrote  to  him  shortly  after  the  defeat  of  the 
Dominican  monks  as  follows :  "  The  Lord  has  been  at 
work  in  you,  that  the  light  of  holy  Scripture  might 
begin  to  shine  in  that  Germany  where  for  so  many  years, 
alas !  it  was  not  only  stifled  but  entirely  extinct." 

(c.)  ERASMUS. 

Erasmus  was,  perhaps,  the  acutest  scholar  of  his  day. 
In  his  early  youth  he  exhibited  unusual  precocity,  and 
gave  promise  of  future  distinction.  When  a  young 
pupil  at  Deventer,  he  was  one  day  enthusiastically  em- 
braced by  his  teacher  with  these  words,  "  You  will  one 
day  attain  the  highest  summit  of  knowledge."  Agricola, 
who  saw  him  at  the  age  of  twelve  years,  was  so  impressed 
by  the  young  scholar's  appearance  that  he  said  to  him, 
"  You  will  one  day  become  a  great  man."  These  pre- 
dictions were  fulfilled. 

Erasmus  was  born  at  Rotterdam,  in  1467.  Having 
been  left  an  orphan  at  an  early  age,  he  was  placed  in  a 
convent  by  his  guardians  with  a  view,  it  is  said,  of  seiz- 
ing upon  his  patrimony.  Though  life  in  a  monastery 
was  distasteful  to  him  beyond  measure,  he  prosecuted  his 
studies  with  extraordinary  zeal.  He  made  considerable 
attainments  in  Greek,  which  he  taught  himself,  while 
his  Latin  was  as  polished  as  Cicero's.  Having  been  sent 
to  the  University  of  Paris  by  the  Archbishop  of  Cam- 
bray,  he  studied  theology  and  literature  with  great  suc- 
cess. Afterward  he  traveled  in  England,  France,  and 
Germany,  everywhere  receiving  the  homage  accorded 
to  native  genius  and  vast  acquirements.  In  Italy  tempt- 
ing positions  were  offered  him  by  the  pope  and  by  mem- 


132     FROM  THE  REFORMATION  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME. 

bers  of  the  papal  court ;  but,  rejecting  all  overtures  that 
might  compromise  his  independence,  he  located  at  Basel, 
in  the  hope  of  learned  leisure  and  retirement.  In  this 
he  was  disappointed ;  for  he  was  dragged  into  religious 
controversies,  which  cost  him  his  popularity  and  peace 
of  mind,  and  filled  his  latter  days  with  bitterness. 

Erasmus  contributed  to  the  Reformation  in  several 
ways.  At  a  time  of  religious  persecution,  he  preached 
a  tolerance  far  in  advance  of  his  day.  He  advocated 
orthodoxy  in  Christian  life  rather  than  in  speculative 
theology.  "Let  us  have  done,"  he  says,  "with  theo- 
logical refinements.  There  is  an  excuse  for  the  fathers, 
because  the  heretics  forced  them  to  define  particular 
points ;  but  every  definition  is  a  misfortune,  and  for  us 
to  persevere  in  the  same  way  is  sheer  folly.  Is  no  man 
to  be  admitted  to  grace  who  does  not  know  how  the 
Father  differs  from  the  Son,  and  both  from  the  Spirit  ? 
or  how  the  nativity  of  the  Son  differs  from  the  proces- 
sion of  the  Spirit  ?  Unless  I  forgive  my  brother  his 
sins  against  me,  God  will  not  forgive. me  my  sins.  Un- 
less I  have  a  pure  heart — unless  I  put  away  envy,  hate, 
pride,  avarice,  lust — I  shall  not  see  God.  But  a  man  is 
not  damned  because  he  can  not  tell  whether  the  Spirit 
has  one  principle  or  two.  Has  he  the  fruits  of  the 
Spirit  ?  That  is  the  question.  Is  he  patient,  kind,  good, 
gentle,  modest,  temperate,  chaste  ?  Inquire  if  you  will, 
but  do  not  define.  True  religion  is  peace,  and  we  can 
not  have  peace  unless  we  leave  the  conscience  unshackled 
on  obscure  points  on  which  certainty  is  impossible." 

The  most  valuable  service  that  Erasmus  rendered  the 
Reformation  was  his  publication  of  the  New  Testament 
in  Greek.  It  was  a  scholarly  work,  and  one  of  the  most 


REVIVAL  OF  LEARNING  AND  THE  HUMANISTS.     133 

beautiful  fruits  of  the  revival  of  letters.  The  work  was 
undertaken  in  the  interests  of  a  purer  Christianity.  "  It 
is  my  desire,"  he  said,  in  his  preface,  "  to  lead  back  that 
cold  dispute  about  words  called  theology  to  its  real  fount- 
ain. Would  to  God  that  this  work  may  bear  as  much 
fruit  to  Christianity  as  it  has  cost  me  toil  and  applica- 
tion ! " 

Though  accomplishing  no  little  for  the  purification 
of  the  Church,  Erasmus  was  by  no  means  qualified  to 
become  a  thorough  reformer.  He  lacked  courage  and 
heroic  devotion  to  truth.  "As  to  me,"  he  confessed 
frankly,  "I  have  no  inclination  to  risk  my  life  for  the 
truth.  We  have  not  all  strength  for  martyrdom ;  and, 
if  trouble  come,  I  shall  imitate  St.  Peter.  Popes  and 
emperors  must  settle  creeds.  If  they  settle  them  well, 
BO  much  the  better ;  if  ill,  I  shall  keep  on  the  safe  side." 
To  this  confession  corresponded  his  conduct  when  the 
conflicts  of  the  Reformation  began.  He  avoided  taking  a 
positive  stand.  Finally,  by  his  indecision  and  duplicity, 
he  lost  the  confidence  of  both  Lutherans  and  Roman- 
ists, and  exposed  himself  to  bitter  attacks  from  both 
parties. 

In  his  numerous  writings,  Erasmus  has  repeatedly 
touched  upon  educational  topics.  He  always  displays 
keenness  of  penetration  and  soundness  of  judgment. 
He  thus  inveighs  against  the  superficial  imitation  of 
Cicero  then  prevalent :  "  You  are  charged,"  he  says  to 
the  Ciceronians,  "  with  a  very  difficult  task ;  for,  besides 
the  errors  of  language  that  have  escaped  Cicero,  the 
copyists  have  sown  his  works  with  a  multitude  of  mis- 
takes, and  many  of  the  writings  attributed  to  this  author 
are  not  authentic.  Finally,  his  verses  translated  from 


134:  FROM  THE  REFORMATION  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME. 

the  Greek  are  worth  nothing.  And  you  would  imitate 
all  that,  the  good  and  the  bad,  the  authentic  and  the 
non-authentic  !  Certainly,  your  imitation  is  very  super- 
ficial ;  it  is  unworthy  of  your  master.  Your  imitation  is 
servile,  cold,  and  dead,  without  life,  without  movement, 
without  feeling ;  it  is  an  apishness  in  which  one  discov- 
ers none  of  the  virtues  that  have  made  the  glory  of 
Cicero,  such  as  his  happy  inspiration,  the  intelligent  dis- 
position of  his  subjects,  the  wisdom  with  which  he  treats 
each  subject,  his  large  acquaintance  with  men  and  affairs, 
and  his  ability  to  move  those  who  hear  him.  These  are 
what  should  be  imitated  in  Cicero ;  and,  in  order  to  imi- 
tate him,  we  must,  like  him,  identify  ourselves  with  the 
age  in  which  we  live,  that  we  may  be  able  to  adapt  our 
language  to  it ;  otherwise,  our  speech  has  no  longer  that 
seal  of  reality  which  animated  the  discourse  of  Cicero." 

In  reference  to  reading  an  author  in  class,  Erasmus 
says :  "  The  teacher  ought  to  explain  only  what  is  strictly 
necessary  for  understanding  the  author;  he  ought  to 
resist  the  temptation  of  making  on  every  occasion  a  dis- 
play of  his  knowledge.  The  end  of  this  rule  is  to  con- 
centrate the  attention  of  the  pupil  upon  his  author,  to 
bring  him  into  contact  with  him.  Too  many  digressions 
break  the  force  of  the  author,  and  prevent  the  pupil 
from  f eeling  and  enjoying  that  inspiration,  so  well  suited 
to  quicken  him  who  breathes  it  freely." 

Erasmus  advocated  the  study  of  history,  geography, 
natural  history,  and  agriculture.  In  doing  so,  he  was  in 
advance  of  his  time.  Yet  he  found  the  worth  of  these 
studies,  not  in  themselves,  but  in  the  light  they  would 
throw  upon  classic  literature.  Luther,  who  was  probably 
the  first  to  recognize  the  intrinsic  worth  of  the  natural 


RELATION  OF  THE  REFORMATION  TO  EDUCATION.  135 

sciences,  says :  "  "We  are  at  the  dawn  of  a  new  era,  for 
we  are  beginning  to  recover  the  knowledge  of  the  ex- 
ternal world  that  we  had  lost  since  the  fall  of  Adam. 
Erasmus  is  indifferent  to  it ;  he  does  not  care  to  know 
how  fruit  is  developed  from  the  germ.  But,  by  the 
grace  of  God,  we  already  recognize  in  the  most  delicate 
flower  the  wonders  of  divine  goodness  and  the  omnipo- 
tence of  God.  We  see  in  his  creatures  the  power  of  his 
word.  He  commanded,  and  the  thing  stood  fast.  See 
that  force  display  itself  in  the  stone  of  a  peach.  It  is 
very  hard,  and  the  germ  that  it  incloses  is  very  tender ; 
but,  when  the  moment  has  come,  the  stone  must  open  to 
let  out  the  young  plant  that  God  calls  into  life.  Eras- 
mus passes  by  all  that,  takes  no  account  of  it,  and  looks 
upon  external  objects  as  cows  look  upon  a  new  gate." 


2.   THE  RELATION  OF  THE  REFORMATION  TO  EDUCA- 
TION. 

(A.)  THE  CONDITION  OF  THE  CHURCH. 

After  the  foregoing  sketch  of  concurring  circum- 
stances, particularly  of  the  revival  of  letters,  we  return 
to  the  Reformation  itself.  In  order  to  appreciate  fully 
its  great  influence  upon  education,  it  is  necessary  to  have 
a  clear  conception  of  the  sad  condition  of  the  Church 
and  schools  at  the  opening  of  the  sixteenth  century.  In 
our  study  of  humanism,  we  have  seen  the  skepticism 
prevailing  at  the  court  of  Leo  X.,  and  the  ignorance  and 
vice  existing  in  the  monasteries.  The  same  unnatural 
and  ruinous  elements  were  found  in  all  ranks  of  the 
Church.  It  was  a  time  of  great  moral  and  intellectual 


136  FROM  THE  REFORMATION  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME. 

degeneracy.  Learning  had  died  out  among  the  clergy ; 
the  schools  were  neglected ;  superstition  and  ignorance 
characterized  the  masses.  We  will  let  contemporaries 
present  the  details  of  this  sorrowful  picture.  A  distin- 
guished theologian  of  Germany,  writing  in  1503,  says  : 
"  The  study  of  theology  is  despised  ;  the  gospel  of 
Christ,  as  well  as  the  admirable  writings  of  the  fathers, 
is  neglected ;  of  faith,  piety,  temperance,  and  other  vir- 
tues, praised  even  by  the  better  heathen ;  of  the  mir- 
acles of  God's  grace  toward  us,  and  of  the  merits  of 
Christ,  there  is  profound  silence.  And  such  people, 
who  understand  neither  philosophy  nor  theology,  are 
elevated  to  the  highest  dignities  of  the  Church,  and  are 
made  bishops  of  souls.  Hence  the  pitiable  decline  of 
the  Christian  Church,  the  contempt  of  the  clergy,  and 
the  utter  want  of  good  teachers.  The  infamous  life  of 
the  clergy  deters  honest  parents  from  consecrating  their 
sons  to  this  office.  They  completely  neglect  the  study 
of  holy  Scripture,  lose  taste  for  its  beauty  and  power, 
become  lazy  and  lukewarm  in  their  office,  and  content 
themselves  with  dispatching  divine  service  as  quickly  as 
possible.  With  a  man  who  owes  them  money,  they 
speak  more  earnestly  and  circumspectly  than  with  their 
Creator.  Oppressed  with  a  sense  of  weariness  in  their 
office,  they  turn  to  play,  rioting,  and  debauchery,  with- 
out minding  in  the  least  the  popular  contempt.  How 
can  it  be  possible,  under  the  circumstances,  for  the  laity 
to  respect  them  and  religion  at  all  ?  The  gospel  calls 
the  way  to  heaven  narrow,  but  they  make  it  broad  and 
jovial." 

After  visiting  the  churches  and  schools  of  Thurin- 
gia,  by  order  of  the  Elector  John,  Melanchthon  writes  : 


RELATION  OF  THE  REFORMATION  TO   EDUCATION.  137 

"  What  can  be  offered  in  justification,  that  these  poor  peo- 
ple have  hitherto  been  left  in  such  great  ignorance  and 
stupidity?  My  heart  bleeds  when  I  regard  this  misery. 
Often  when  we  have  completed  the  visitation  of  a  place, 
I  go  to  one  side  and  pour  forth  my  distress  in  tears. 
And  who  would  not  mourn  to  see  the  faculties  of  man 
so  utterly  neglected,  and  that  his  soul,  which  is  able  to 
learn  and  grasp  so  much,  does  not  even  know  anything 
of  its  Creator  and  Lord  ? " 

After  the  visitation  of  the  churches  of  Saxony,  in 
1528,  Luther  wrote  in  the  preface  of  his  "  Small  Cate- 
chism": "The  pitiable  need  which  I  recently  witnessed, 
as  visitor,  has  compelled  me  to  prepare  this  catechism 
on  Christian  doctrine  in  such  simple  form.  Alas !  what 
a  sad  state  of  things  I  witnessed !  The  common  people, 
especially  in  the  villages,  are  utterly  ignorant  of  the 
Christian  doctrine ;  even  many  pastors  are  wholly  un- 
qualified to  teach ;  and  yet  all  are  called  Christians,  are 
baptized,  and  partake  of  the  sacrament,  knowing  neither 
the  Lord's  Prayer,  the  Creed,  nor  the  Ten  Command- 
ments, and  living  and  acting  like  irrational  beasts.  Nev- 
ertheless, now  that  the  precious  gospel  has  appeared 
again,  they  readily  learn  to  abuse  all  freedom.  O  you 
bishops !  how  will  you  ever  answer  to  Christ  for  having 
so  shamefully  neglected  the  people,  and  for  not  having 
exercised  one  moment  your  office  that  you  might  escape 
all  evil?" 

Another  passage  or  two  from  Luther  must  suffice,  in 
addition  to  what  has  already  been  said,  to  indicate  the 
wretched  state  of  education  at  the  time  of  the  Reforma- 
tion. "  Is  it  not  truly  pitiable,"  he  says,  "  that  a  boy 
has  been  obliged  to  study  twenty  years  or  longer  to  learn 


138  FROM  THE  REFORMATION  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME. 

enough  bad  Latin  to  become  a  priest  and  read  mass  ? 
And  whoever  has  accomplished  that  has  been  called 
blessed,  and  blessed  the  mother  who  has  borne  such  a 
child ;  and  jet  he  has  remained  a  poor,  ignorant  man  all 
his  life  long,  unfit  for  any  useful  vocation.  Such  teach- 
ers and  masters  we  have  been  obliged  to  have  every- 
where, who  have  known  nothing  themselves,  and  have 
been  able  to  teach  nothing  good  or  useful ;  yea,  they 
have  not  known  the  way  in  which  one  should  learn  and 
teach."  Elsewhere  he  says :  "  Is  it  not  obvious  that  a 
boy  can  now  be  instructed  so  that  he  knows  more  in  his 
fifteenth  or  eighteenth  year  than  all  the  universities  and 
convents  have  hitherto  known  ?  Yea,  what  have  they 
taught  in  the  universities  and  convents  but  to  become 
blockheads?  A  man  has  studied  twenty,  forty  years, 
and  has  learned  neither  Latin  nor  German.  Of  the 
shameful,  licentious  life,  by  which  the  generous  youth 
have  been  destroyed,  I  say  nothing." 

(B.)   PRINCIPLES    OF   PROTESTANTISM. 

The  fundamental  principles  of  Protestantism  are  fa- 
vorable to  education.  The  two  great  truths  underlying 
the  Reformation  are — 1.  Man  is  justified  by  faith  alone ; 
2.  The  Bible  is  the  only  rule  of  religious  faith  and  prac- 
tice. In  the  Protestant  Church,  all  become  by  faith 
kings  and  priests  unto  God.  The  only  mediator  between 
God  and  man  is  Jesus  Christ ;  and,  through  him,  all 
believers,  without  the  intervention  of  priest,  saint,  or 
pope,  have  immediate  access  to  the  Father.  "With  the 
Scriptures  and  his  conscience  for  guides,  every  man  is 
elevated  to  the  freedom  and  dignity  of  ordering  his  own 
religious  life.  The  feeling  of  individual  responsibility 


RELATION  OF  THE  REFORMATION  TO  EDUCATION.     139 

is  awakened,  and  the  spirit  of  inquiry  fostered.  Intel- 
ligence becomes  a  necessity.  The  Bible  must  be  stud- 
ied ;  teachers  must  be  provided ;  schools  must  be  estab- 
lished. Protestantism  becomes  the  mother  of  popular 
education. 

Justification  by  faith  goes  further.  It  makes  Christ, 
and  not  the  Church,  the  center  of  Christianity.  Per- 
sonal union  with  him  constitutes  the  Christian.  Religion 
consists  in  exemplifying  his  principles  in  all  the  relations 
of  life ;  in  being  pure,  humble,  temperate,  honest,  lov- 
ing; in  being  like  the  great  Teacher  himself.  It  in- 
volves a  thorough  transformation  of  individual  character. 
It  does  not  withdraw  man  from  the  ordinary  callings 
and  relations  of  life ;  it  makes  him  a  steward  of  God 
in  the  world,  and  exalts  his  daily  labors  in  the  house- 
hold, in  the  school-room,  in  the  workshop,  on  the  farm, 
into  a  divine  service.  The  Protestant  view  restores 
Nature,  as  a  subject  of  investigation,  to  its  rights.  The 
whole  circle  of  knowledge — whatever  is  elevating,  what- 
ever prepares  for  useful  living — is  held  in  honor.  Pri- 
mary and  secondary  schools  are  encouraged;  the  best 
methods  of  instruction,  based  upon  a  study  of  man's  na- 
ture and  not  upon  the  interests  of  the  Church,  are  sought 
out ;  education  is  based  upon  a  broad  and  solid  founda- 
tion. Protestantism  is  the  friend  of  universal  learning. 

"  In  rendering  man  responsible  for  his  faith,  and  in 
placing  the  source  of  that  faith  in  holy  Scripture,"  says 
Michel  Breal,  an  able  French  scholar,  "  the  Reformation 
contracted  the  obligation  of  placing  every  one  in  a  con- 
dition to  save  himself  by  reading  and  studying  the  Bible. 
Instruction  became  then  the  first  of  the  duties  of  charity ; 
and  all  who  had  charge  of  souls,  from  the  father  of  a 


140     FROM  THE  REFORMATION  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME. 

family  to  the  magistrates  of  cities  and  to  the  sovereign 
of  the  state,  were  called  upon,  in  the  name  of  their  own 
salvation,  and  each  according  to  the  measure  of  his  re- 
sponsibility, to  favor  popular  education.  Thus  Protest- 
antism, by  a  connection  of  ideas  whose  philosophic 
value  can  not  be  here  discussed,  but  whose  practical 
consequences  were  of  inestimable  value,  placed  in  the 
service  of  education  the  most  effective  stimulus  and  the 
most  powerful  interest  that  can  be  brought  to  bear  upon 
men." 

8.   THE  REFORMERS. 

(A.)  LUTHEK. 

The  greatest  of  the  Reformers,  whether  we  consider 
his  relation  to  the  Church  or  to  education,  was  Martin 
Luther.  Carlyle  has  paid  him  a  glowing  tribute.  "  I 
will  call  this  Luther,"  he  says,  "  a  true  great  man ;  great 
in  intellect,  in  courage,  affection,  and  integrity ;  one  of 
our  most  lovable  and  precious  men.  Great  not  as  a 
hewn  obelisk,  but  as  an  Alpine  mountain,  so  simple, 
honest,  spontaneous,  not  setting  up  to  be  great  at  all ; 
there  for  quite  another  purpose  than  being  great !  Ah, 
yes,  unsubduable  granite,  piercing  far  and  wide  into  ±he 
heavens;  yet  in  the  clefts  of  it  fountains,  green  and 
beautiful  valleys  with  flowers  !  A  right  spiritual  hero 
and  prophet ;  once  more  a  true  son  of  Nature  and  fact, 
for  whom  these  centuries,  and  many  that  are  to  come 
yet,  will  be  thankful  to  Heaven." 

Luther  was  born  at  Eisleben,  Germany,  November 
10,  1483.  His  father  was  a  miner  in  humble  circum- 
stances. The  home-training  which  he  received  was  se- 


THE   REFORMERS. 

vere  and  hardening.  His  father  sometimes  whipped 
him  "  for  a  mere  trifle  till  the  blood  came."  At  school, 
he  came  under  the  prevalent  cruel  discipline,  and  was 
flogged,  as  he  tells  us,  fifteen  times  during  a  single  fore- 
noon. After  studying  at  schools  in  Magdeburg  and  Eise- 
nach, he  entered  the  University  of  Erfurt  at  eighteen, 
and  in  three  years  took  his  degree  of  Master  of  Arts. 
He  was  designed  by  his  father  for  the  law ;  but,  finding 
a  copy  of  the  Bible  in  the  university  library  one  day, 
he  was  moved  by  its  contents,  and  resolved  upon  devot- 
ing himself  to  the  monastic  life.  He  entered  the  Au- 
gustinian  convent  at  Erfurt.  Here  he  spent  three  years 
in  profound  study,  passed  through  great  spiritual  trials, 
and  laid  the  foundation  of  those  doctrinal  convictions 
which  were  shortly  to  shake  the  world.  In  1508  he  was 
called  to  a  chair  in  the  University  of  Wittenberg,  and 
the  following  year  he  commenced  lecturing  upon  the 
holy  Scriptures.  "This  monk,"  said  the  rector  of  the 
university,  "  will  puzzle  our  doctors  and  bring  in  a  new 
doctrine."  About  the  same  time  he  began  to  preach, 
profoundly  moving  his  hearers.  "  His  words,"  Melanch- 
thon  said,  "  were  born  not  on  his  lips  but  in  his  soul." 
In  1511  he  made  a  visit  to  Rome,  and  observed  the 
profligacy  of  the  papal  court.  After  his  return  to  Wit- 
tenberg the  sale  of  indulgences  by  Tetzel  aroused  his 
indignation,  and  he  prepared  ninety-five  theses,  in  which 
he  maintained  that  only  God  can  forgive  sin.  He  nailed 
his  theses  to  the  church-door,  October  31,  151 7,  and 
offered  to  defend  them  against  the  world.  This  was  the 
birth-hour  of  the  Reformation.  He  was  soon  brought 
to  open  rupture  with  the  Church,  and  in  1521  he  was 
summoned  before  the  Imperial  Diet  at  Worms  to  answer 


142      FROM   THE  REFORMATION  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME. 

for  his  doctrines.  It  was  here  that  he  made  that  noble 
declaration  which  marks  a  turning-point  in  history,  and 
ushers  in  the  era  of  personal  freedom.  Confronted 
by  the  authority  of  the  pope,  the  opinions  of  Church 
fathers,  and  the  decrees  of  councils,  Luther  was  called 
upon  to  recant.  "  Unless  I  am  proved  to  be  in  error," 
he  replies,  "  by  testimony  from  Holy  Writ,  or  by  clear 
and  overpowering  reasons,  I  can  not  and  will  not  recant, 
because  it  is  neither  safe  nor  advisable  to  do  anything 
against  conscience.  Here  I  stand ;  I  can  not  do  other- 
wise. God  help  me.  Amen ! " 

It  would  extend  this  sketch  too  far  to  follow  Luther 
through  all  the  mighty  labors  and  struggles  of  his  sub- 
sequent conflict  with  the  papacy.  The  result  is  well 
known.  Sustained  by  the  almighty  Power  upon  which 
he  so  confidently  relied,  he  conducted  the  Reformation 
to  a  successful  issue.  Civil  and  religious  liberty  were 
given  to  the  world.  In  spite  of  the  rage  of  his  enemies, 
he  was  permitted  to  pass  away  peacefully  in  1546. 

The  necessities  of  the  Reformation  gave  Luther  an 
intense  interest  in  education.  The  schools  of  the  time, 
already  inadequate  in  number  and  defective  in  method, 
were  crippled  during  the  early  stages  of  the  Reforma- 
tion by  the  excited  and  unsettled  condition  of  society. 
A  new  generation  was  growing  up  without  education. 
The  establishment  of  schools  became  a  necessary  measure 
for  the  success  and  permanence  of  the  Reformation. 
The  appeal  had  been  made  to  the  Word  of  God,  and  it 
was  necessary  to  teach  the  masses  to  read  it.  Preachers 
and  teachers  were  needed  for  the  promulgation  and  de- 
fense of  the  gospel ;  enlightened  and  pious  rulers,  for 
the  government  of  city  and  state.  As  early  as  1521, 


THE   REFORMERS.  143 

Luther  made  an  appeal  of  marvelous  energy  to  the  au- 
thorities of  the  German  cities  for  the  establishment  of 
schools.  If  we  consider  its  pioneer  character,  in  con- 
nection with  its  statement  of  principles  and  admirable 
recommendations,  the  address  must  be  regarded  the  most 
important  educational  treatise  ever  written. 

"With  Luther  education  was  not  an  end  in  itself,  but 
a  means  to  more  effective  service  in  church  and  state. 
If  people  or  rulers  neglect  the  education  of  the  young, 
they  inflict  an  injury  upon  both  church  and  state ;  they 
become  the  enemies  of  God  and  man ;  they  advance  the 
cause  of  Satan,  and  bring  down  upon  themselves  the 
curse  of  Heaven.  This  is  the  fundamental  thought  that 
underlies  all  Luther's  writings  upon  education.  The 
following  extract  presents  his  views  in  brief  compass : 
"  The  common  man,"  he  says,  "  does  not  think  that  he 
is  under  obligation  to  God  and  the  world  to  send  his 
son  to  school.  Every  one  thinks  that  he  is  free  to  bring 
up  his  son  as  he  pleases,  no  matter  what  becomes  of 
God's  word  and  command.  Yea,  even  our  rulers  act  as 
if  they  were  exempt  from  the  divine  command.  No 
one  thinks  that  God  has  earnestly  willed  and  commanded 
that  children  be  brought  up  to  his  praise  and  work — a 
thing  that  can  not  be  done  without  schools.  On  the  con- 
trary, every  one  hastens  with  his  children  after  worldly 
gain,  as  if  God  and  Christianity  needed  no  pastors  and 
preachers,  and  the  state  no  chancellors,  councilors,  and 
scribes." 

In  his  letter  to  the  councilors  of  the  German  cities, 
Luther  says :  "  But  even  if  there  were  no  soul,  and  we 
had  not  the  least  need  of  schools  and  the  languages  for 
the  sake  of  the  Scriptures  and  of  God,  this  one  reason 


144     FROM  THE  REFORMATION  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME. 

should  suffice  to  cause  the  establishment  of  the  very  best 
schools  everywhere,  both  for  boys  and  girls,  namely, 
that  the  world  needs  accomplished  men,  and  women 
also,  for  maintaining  its  outward  temporal  prosperity,  so 
that  the  men  may  be  capable  of  properly  governing  the 
country  and  people,  and  the  women  of  superintending 
the  house,  children,  and  servants.  Now,  such  men  must 
come  of  boys,  and  such  women  of  girls ;  therefore,  the 
object  must  be  rightly  to  instruct  and  educate  boys  and 
girls  for  these  purposes." 

Luther  wisely  insisted  upon  the  maintenance  of  fam- 
ily discipline  as  a  measure  of  public  safety  and  pros- 
perity. "  What  is  a  city,"  he  asks,  "  other  than  a  col- 
lection of  families  ?  How,  then,  can  a  city  be  well  gov- 
erned, where  there  is  no  government  in  the  family ;  yea, 
where  neither  child  nor  servant  is  obedient  ?  Likewise, 
a  district ;  what  is  it  other  than  a  collection  of  cities, 
towns,  and  villages  ?  "Where  now  the  families  are  badly 
governed,  how  can  a  whole  district  be  well  governed  ? 
Yea,  the  result  must  be  tyranny,  witchcraft,  murder, 
theft,  disobedience.  Again,  a  principality  is  a  collection 
of  districts  and  duchies,  a  kingdom  a  collection  of  prin- 
cipalities, an  empire  a  collection  of  kingdoms.  These 
are  all  composed  of  separate  families.  Where  now 
father  and  mother  govern  badly,  and  let  children  have 
their  own  way,  there  can  neither  city,  town,  village,  dis- 
trict, principality,  kingdom,  nor  empire  be  well  and 
peacefully  governed.  For  the  son  will  become  a  father, 
judge,  mayor,  prince,  king,  emperor,  preacher,  school- 
master ;  if  he  has  been  badly  brought  up,  the  subjects 
will  become  like  their  master,  the  members  like  their 
head." 


THE   REFORMERS.  145 

Luther  set  a  high  estimate  upon  the  office  of  teach- 
ing. "  Where  would  preachers,  lawyers,  and  physicians 
come  from,"  he  asks,  "  if  the  liberal  arts  were  not  taught  ? 
From  this  source  must  they  all  come.  This  I  say,  no 
one  can  ever  sufficiently  remunerate  the  industrious  and 
pious  teacher  that  faithfully  educates  children,  as  the 
heathen  Aristotle  has  said.  And  yet  people  shamefully 
despise  this  calling  among  us,  as  if  it  were  nothing,  and 
at  the  same  time  they  pretend  to  be  Christians  !  If  I 
were  obliged  to  leave  off  preaching  and  other  duties, 
there  is  no  office  I  would  rather  have  than  that  of 
school-teacher ;  for  I  know  that  this  work  is  with  preach- 
ing the  most  useful,  greatest,  and  best :  and  I  do  not 
know  which  of  the  two  is  to  be  preferred.  For  it  is 
difficult  to  make  old  dogs  docile  and  old  rogues  pious, 
yet  that  is  what  the  ministry  works  at,  and  must  work 
at,  in  great  part,  in  vain;  but  young  trees,  although 
some  may  break,  are  more  easily  bent  and  trained. 
Therefore,  let  it  be  one  of  the  highest  virtues  on  earth 
faithfully  to  educate  the  children  of  others  who  neglect 
it  themselves." 

Luther  justly  looked  upon  learning  as  a  source  of 
wealth  and  power  to  a  community.  "  Therefore  it  will 
be  proper  for  the  civil  authorities,"  he  says,  "  to  exercise 
the  greatest  possible  care  and  industry  in  regard  to  the 
young;  for,  since  the  interests  of  the  city  are  committed, 
to  their  trust,  they  would  not  do  well  before  God  and 
the  world  if  they  did  not  seek  with  all  their  might  to 
promote  its  prosperity.  Now,  the  prosperity  of  a  city 
does  not  consist  alone  in  vast  treasures,  strong  walls, 
beautiful  houses,  large  supplies  of  muskets  and  armor ; 
yea,  when  these  things  are  found,  and  fools  exercise 
7 


146      FROM  THE  REFORMATION  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME. 

authority,  it  is  BO  much  the  worse  for  the  city.  The 
best  and  richest  treasure  of  a  city  is  that  it  have  many 
pure,  learned,  intelligent,  honest,  well-educated  citizens, 
for  these  can  collect,  preserve,  and  properly  use  whatever 
is  good." 

There  is  scarcely  any  phase  of  education  that  Luther 
left  untouched.  Everywhere  he  exhibited  the  same 
strong  good  sense.  "  If  we  survey  the  pedagogy  of  Lu- 
ther in  all  its  extent,"  says  Dittes,  "  and  imagine  it  fully 
realized  in  practice,  what  a  splendid  picture  the  schools 
and  education  of  the  sixteenth  century  would  present ! 
"We  should  have  courses  of  study,  text-books,  teachers, 
methods,  principles,  and  modes  of  discipline,  schools  and 
school  regulations,  that  could  serve  as  models  for  our 
own  age.  But,  alas!  Luther,  like  all  great  men,  was 
little  understood  by  his  age  and  adherents ;  and  what 
was  understood  was  inadequately  esteemed,  and  what 
was  esteemed  was  only  imperfectly  realized." 

Luther  could  not  devote  himself  directly  or  chiefly 
to  the  cause  of  education.  As  was  once  the  case  with 
the  apostle  Paul,  "  the  care  of  all  the  churches "  was 
upon  him.  It  was  through  his  writings  and  personal 
influence  that  he  affected  education.  The  great  need  he 
saw  during  the  visitation  of  the  churches  in  Saxony  led 
him,  in  1529,  to  prepare  his  catechisms  for  the  instruc- 
tion of  both  clergy  and  laity.  In  1534:  he  published  his 
translation  of  the  Bible,  which  had  an  almost  incredible 
educational  influence  upon  Germany.  The  people  seized 
upon  it  with  avidity,  and  in  the  course  of  a  few  years 
nearly  half  a  million  copies  were  in  circulation.  It  fixed 
the  German  language,  which  had  previously  been  broken 
up  into  rival  dialects.  A  Roman  writer  of  the  time  says : 


THE  REFORMERS. 

"Even  shoemakers,  women,  and  ignorant  people,  who 
have  learned  only  a  little  German,  are  eagerly  reading 
the  New  Testament  as  the  fountain  of  all  truth ;  and 
that,  moreover,  with  such  frequency  that  they  know  it 
by  heart.  They  also  carry  it  about  in  their  pockets,  and 
in  this  way  conceive  in  a  few  weeks  such  a  high  opinion 
of  their  knowledge  that  they  dispute  not  only  with 
Catholic  laymen,  but  with  the  priests  and  monks,  and 
even  with  doctors  of  theology,  about  faith  and  the 
gospel." 

Luther's  efforts  in  behalf  of  education  were  not  fruit- 
less. All  Protestant  Germany  was  aroused  by  his  ap- 
peals. In  1525  he  was  commissioned  by  the  Duke  of 
Mansfield  to  establish  two  schools  in  his  native  town, 
Eisleben,  one  for  primary  and  the  other  for  secondary 
instruction.  Both  in  the  course  of  study,  and  in  the 
methods  of  instruction,  these  schools  became  models 
after  which  many  others  were  fashioned.  As  a  direct 
and  comprehensive  result  of  Luther's  educational  en- 
deavors, the  forms  of  church  government  adopted  by 
the  various  Protestant  cities  and  states  contained  pro- 
visions for  the  establishment  and  management  of 
schools.  In  a  few  years  the  Protestant  portion  of 
Germany  was  supplied  with  schools.  They  were  still 
defective  in  almost  every  particular ;  but,  at  the  same 
time,  they  were  greatly  superior  to  any  that  had  pre- 
ceded them.  Though  no  complete  system  of  popular 
instruction  was  established,  the  foundation  for  it  was 
laid.  To  this  great  result  Luther  contributed  more 
than  any  other  man  of  his  time ;  and  this  fact  makes 
him  the  leading  educational  reformer  of  the  sixteenth 
century. 


148     FROM  THE  REFORMATION  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME. 
(B.)   MELANCHTHON. 

Philip  Melanchthon  has  been  honored  with  the  title 
Preceptor  Germanics.  Excepting  Luther,  no  other  re- 
former did  so  much  for  education  in  Germany.  His 
real  name  was  Schwarzerd,  meaning  Hack  earth  ;  but 
this  was  translated  by  Reuchlin  into  the  more  euphoni- 
ous Greek  equivalent,  Melanchthon.  He  was  born  at 
Bretten,  Germany,  in  1497,  where  he  received  his  early 
education  from  a  strict  but  faithful  schoolmaster.  "  I 
had  a  teacher,"  he  tells  us,  "  who  was  an  excellent  gram- 
marian, and  held  me  rigidly  to  grammar.  Whenever  I 
made  mistakes  I  received  blows,  yet  with  moderation. 
In  this  way  he  made  a  grammarian  out  of  me.  He  was 
a  good  man ;  he  loved  me  as  his  son,  and  I  him  as  my 
father." 

His  precocity  and  thirst  for  knowledge  were  remark- 
able. Reuchlin  admired  the  young  scholar's  ability,  and 
one  day  playfully  brought  him  a  doctor's  hat.  Erasmus 
had  a  high  opinion  of  him.  "  My  God  ! "  he  exclaimed, 
"  what  promising  hopes  does  Philip  Melanchthon  give 
us,  who,  yet  a  youth,  yes  almost  a  boy,  deserves  equal 
esteem  for  his  knowledge  of  both  languages  !  What 
sagacity  in  argument,  what  purity  of  expression,  what  a 
rare  and  comprehensive  knowledge,  what  extensive  read- 
ing, what  a  delicacy  and  elegance  of  mind  does  he  not 
display ! " 

Melanchthon  attended  the  University  of  Heidelberg, 
and  took  his  bachelor's  degree  there  at  the  age  of  fif- 
teen. About  this  time  he  prepared  a  Greek  grammar, 
which  was  not  published,  however,  till  several  years 
later.  He  spent  six  years  at  the  University  of  Tiibin- 


THE   REFORMERS.  14.9 

gen,  first  as  a  student  and  afterward  as  a  lecturer.  In 
1518  he  was  called  to  the  chair  of  Greek  at  the  Univer- 
sity of  Wittenberg.  His  small  stature,  youthful  look, 
and  timid  manner,  made  at  first  an  unfavorable  impres- 
sion; but  his  introductory  lecture  captivated  his  hear- 
ers, and  established  his  reputation.  Luther,  in  particular, 
was  delighted,  and  wrote  to  his  friend  Spalatin  as  fol- 
lows :  "  Philip  deli vered  a  very  learned  and  chaste  ad- 
dress on  the  fourth  day  after  his  arrival,  and  that  too 
with  such  applause  and  admiration  on  every  side,  that 
you  need  not  trouble  yourself  further  in  commending 
him  to  us.  We  must  look  away  from  his  exterior  ap- 
pearance ;  we  rejoice  in  his  gifts,  at  the  same  time  that 
we  are  amazed  at  them ;  and  we  heartily  thank  our  gra- 
cious prince,  as  well  as  your  own  assistance." 

A  warm  affection  and  lasting  intimacy  soon  sprang 
up  between  Luther  and  Melanchthon.  They  were  com- 
plements of  each  other.  This  fact  has  been  well  exhib- 
ited by  D' Aubigne  in  the  following  parallel :  "  Luther 
possessed  warmth,  vigor,  strength ;  Melanchthon,  clear- 
ness, discretion,  and  mildness.  Luther  gave  energy  to  Me- 
lanchthon, Melanchthon  moderated  Luther.  They  were 
like  substances  in  a  state  of  positive  and  negative  elec- 
tricity, which  mutually  act  upon  each  other.  If  Luther 
had  been  without  Melanchthon,  perhaps  the  torrent  would 
have  overflowed  its  banks ;  Melanchthon,  when  Luther 
was  taken  from  him  by  death,  hesitated  and  gave  way, 
even  where  he  should  not  have  yielded.  Luther  did 
much  by  power ;  Melanchthon  perhaps  did  no  less  by 
following  a  gentler  and  more  tranquil  method.  Both 
were  upright,  open-hearted,  generous ;  both  ardently 
loved  the  Word  of  eternal  life,  and  obeyed  it  with 


150     FROM  THE  REFORMATION  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME. 

a  fidelity  and  devotion  that  governed  their  whole 
lives." 

During  his  whole  life  Melanchthon  was  a  student  of 
remarkable  industry.  He  often  arose  as  early  as  two  or 
three  o'clock  in  the  morning  to  pursue  his  studies,  and 
many  of  his  works  were  written  between  that  hour  and 
dawn.  Literature  was  his  passion,  and  it  was  against 
his  will  that  he  was  drawn  into  theological  controversy. 
On  one  occasion  a  Frenchman  visited  him  at  his  home 
in  Wittenberg.  He  found  Melanchthon  in  the  nursery, 
where  he  was  rocking  the  cradle  with  one  hand,  while 
he  held  a  book  in  the  other.  Observing  the  surprise  of 
his  guest,  Melanchthon  praised  domestic  life,  and  the 
gratitude  of  children  toward  God,  in  such  appreciative 
terms  that  the  stranger  went  away  greatly  edified. 

Melanchthon  earnestly  desired  the  diffusion  of  learn- 
ing. "I  apply  myself  solely  to  one  thing,"  he  says, 
"  the  defense  of  letters.  By  our  example  we  must  excite 
youth  to  the  admiration  of  learning,  and  induce  them  to 
love  it  for  its  own  sake,  and  not  for  the  advantage  that 
may  be  derived  from  it.  The  destruction  of  learning 
brings  with  it  the  ruin  of  everything  that  is  good — re- 
ligion, morals,  and  all  things  human  and  divine.  The 
better  a  man  is,  the  greater  his  ardor  in  the  preservation 
of  learning ;  for  he  knows  that  of  all  plagues  ignorance 
is  the  most  pernicious."  He  says  again :  "  To  neglect 
the  young  in  our  schools  is  just  like  taking  the  spring 
out  of  the  year.  They,  indeed,  take  away  the  spring 
from  the  year  who  permit  the  schools  to  decline,  because 
religion  can  not  be  maintained  without  them.  And  a 
terrible  darkness  will  fall  upon  society,  if  the  study  of 
the  sciences  should  be  neglected  ! " 


THE   REFORMERS.  151 

Melanchthon  exerted  an  influence  upon  the  educa- 
tional progress  of  Germany  in  various  ways.  First  of 
all,  he  was  an  able  teacher,  whose  instruction  was  largely 
attended.  Two  thousand  students,  from  all  parts  of 
Europe,  thronged  his  lecture-room  at  Wittenberg,  and 
bore  away  the  precious  seed  both  of  the  gospel  and  of 
ancient  learning.  His  personal  relations  with  students 
were  peculiarly  cordial.  He  welcomed  them  to  his 
home,  and  gave  them  individual  encouragement  and  aid- 
"  I  can  truthfully  affirm,"  he  says,  "  that  I  love  all  the 
students  with  a  fatherly  affection,  and  feel  the  greatest 
solicitude  for  their  welfare."  Many  of  the  leading  edu- 
cators of  Protestant  Germany,  among  whom  may  be 
mentioned  Camerarius,  Michael  Neander,  and  Trotzen- 
dorf,  were  once  his  students.  He  contributed  to  the 
advancement  of  learning  by  his  text-books.  Besides  a 
Greek  and  a  Latin  grammar,  he  published  works  on 
logic,  ethics,  rhetoric,  and  physics,  and  prepared  anno- 
tated editions  of  the  principal  ancient  classics.  These 
works,  written  in  a  clear  and  scientific  form,  soon  be- 
came popular,  and  some  of  them  held  their  place  in  the 
schools  for  more  than  a  hundred  years.  To  him  we  are 
indebted  for  the  well-known  definition,  "Grammar  is 
the  science  of  speaking  and  writing  correctly." 

To  Melanchthon  belongs  the  honor  of  having  pro- 
duced the  first  work  on  dogmatic  theology  in  the  Prot- 
estant Church.  It  appeared  in  1521,  and  is  known  as 
the  Loci  Communes.  Luther  set  a  high  estimate  upon 
this  work.  "  Whoever  wishes  to  become  a  theologian 
now,"  he  says,  "  enjoys  great  advantages ;  for,  first  of 
all,  he  has  the  Bible,  which  is  so  clear  that  he  can  read 
it  without  difficulty.  Then  let  him  read  in  addition 


152     FROM  THE  REFORMATION  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME. 

the  Loci  Communes  of  Melanchthon ;  let  him  read  them 
diligently  and  well,  that  he  may  impress  them  upon  his 
mind.  If  he  has  these  two  things,  he  is  a  theologian, 
from  whom  neither  the  devil  nor  heretics  shall  be  able 
to  take  away  anything.  To  him  the  whole  field  of  the- 
ology lies  open,  so  that  he  is  able  to  read  anything  he 
pleases  after  that  with  edification." 

In  1528  Melanchthon  drew  up  the  "  Saxony  School 
Plan,"  which  served  as  the  basis  of  organization  for  many 
schools  throughout  Germany.  Among  other  things,  he 
says :  "  There  are  now  many  abuses  in  the  schools.  In 
order  that  the  young  may  be  properly  taught,  we  have 
prepared  this  form :  First,  the  teachers  should  see  to  it 
that  the  children  learn  only  Latin,  not  German,  or 
Greek,  or  Hebrew,  as  some  have  hitherto  done,  burden- 
ing the  children  with  a  multiplicity  of  studies  that  were 
not  only  unfruitful,  but  even  hurtful.  It  is  also  plain 
that  such  teachers  do  not  consider  the  good  of  the  chil- 
dren, but  take  up  so  many  studies  for  the  sake  of  repu- 
tation. Secondly,  the  teacher  should  not  burden  the 
children  with  too  many  books,  and  should,  in  every  way, 
avoid  multiplicity  in  his  instruction.  Thirdly,  it  is 
necessary  that  the  children  be  divided  into  classes." 
Three  classes  or  grades  are  recommended.  In  the  first, 
reading,  writing,  music,  the  Creed,  and  the  Lord's  Prayer 
were  to  be  taught ;  in  the  second,  Latin  grammar  and 
the  easier  Latin  authors,  in  connection  with  continued 
religious  instruction ;  in  the  third,  Latin  grammar  was 
completed,  the  more  difficult  Latin  authors  were  taken 
up,  and  versification,  rhetoric,  and  logic  were  intro- 
duced. Latin,  at  length,  became  the  language  of  daily 
intercourse. 


THE  REFORMERS.  153 

•    (c.)   ZWESTGLI   AND   CALVIN. 

A  few  words  must  suffice  for  the  other  leading  re- 
formers. Zwingli  and  Calvin  both  appreciated  the  im- 
portance of  education,  and  contributed  directly  to  its 
advancement.  The  ecclesiastical  polity  which  Calvin 
established  in  Geneva,  in  1541,  provided  teachers  to  give 
instruction  in  the  ancient  languages.  As  early  as  1524, 
the  same  year  that  Luther  made  his  appeal  to  the  au- 
thorities of  the  German  cities,  Zwingli  published  a  little 
work  on  teaching,  which  exhibits  a  considerable  degree 
of  pedagogical  knowledge,  and  contains  some  valuable 
suggestions.  As  with  all  the  reformers,  religious  in- 
struction is  made  prominent.  "  Although  it  is  not  in 
human  power,"  he  says,  "  to  bring  the  heart  of  man  to 
believe  in  God,  even  with  an  eloquence  greater  than 
that  of  Pericles ;  and,  although  our  heavenly  Father 
alone,  who  draws  us  to  himself,  can  accomplish  that 
work,  yet  faith,  as  Paul  teaches,  comes  by  hearing, 
namely,  the  hearing  of  the  "Word  of  God.  Therefore, 
we  must  seek  to  instill  faith  in  youth  by  the  clearest  and 
commonest  words  from  the  mouth  of  God,  at  the  same 
time  praying  that  He  who  alone  begets  faith  would  en- 
lighten him  whom  we  instruct.  It  also  seems  to  me  not 
discordant  with  the  teaching  of  Christ,  if  we  lead  the 
young  through  visible  things  to  the  knowledge  of  God, 
placing  before  their  eyes  the  beauties  of  the  whole 
world,  and  showing  them  under  the  mutations  of  Nature 
the  immutable  Being  who  holds  the  manifold  world  in 
such  admirable  order.  Then  we  may  lead  them  to  see 
that  it  is  not  possible  for  Him,  who  has  so  wisely  and 
beautifully  ordered  all  things,  to  neglect  the  work  of  his 


154:     FROM  THE  REFORMATION  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME. 

hands,  since  even  among  men  we  blame  the  father  who 
does  not  watch  over  and  provide  for  his  household. 
Thus  will  the  young  understand  that  the  providence  of 
God  is  over  all  things,  and  orders  all  things  without 
growing  weary.  If  the  human  spirit  has  once  been 
properly  instructed  in  this  way,  it  can  never  fall  into 
undue  anxiety  or  hurtful  lusts ;  for  it  then  knows  that 
all  things  are  to  be  obtained  from  God,  and  that  it  would 
be  an  offense  to  desire  from  him  anything  unworthy." 


4.  ABSTRACT  THEOLOGICAL  EDUCATION  (1550-1100). 

After  the  Reformation,  the  stream  of  history  broad- 
ens and  deepens.  Various  influences,  often  in  conflict 
with  one  another,  control  the  course  of  events.  During 
the  period  extending  from  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth 
to  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century,  three  lead- 
ing tendencies  are  apparent  in  education.  These  may 
be  characterized  as  the  theological,  the  humanistic,  and 
the  practical.  As  the  theological  tendency,  however, 
maintained  an  ascendency  over  the  others  in  the  schools, 
it  is  allowed  to  give  name  to  the  period.  The  human- 
istic tendency,  which  was  not  very  marked,  was  an  echo 
from  the  revival  of  learning.  The  practical  tendency 
was  a  reaction  against  the  sterile  learning  cultivated  by 
theology  and  humanism. 

The  period  under  discussion  was  one  of  extraordi- 
nary theological  activity.  A  large  share  of  the  intel- 
lectual strength  of  the  age  was  turned  to  theology. 
Every  phase  of  religious  truth,  particularly  in  its  doc- 
trinal and  speculative  aspects,  was  brought  under  inves- 


ABSTRACT  THEOLOGICAL  EDUCATION.  155 

tigation.  Theology  was  elevated  into  a  science,  and 
doctrinal  systems  were  developed  with  logical  precision, 
and  extended  to  trifling  subtilties.  "  Theology  was 
most  fully  developed,"  says  Kurtz,  in  speaking  of  the 
seventeenth  century,  "  and  reared  like  a  mighty  Gothic 
dome  with  astonishing  acuteness,  harmonious  in  its  mi- 
nutest parts,  and  firmly  knit  together  as  a  whole.  But 
the  tendency  to  an  extremely  subtile  development  and 
precise  definition  of  doctrines,  which  sprang  from  the 
controversies  of  the  preceding  century,  became  continu- 
ally more  one-sided.  Hence,  it  called  into  existence  a 
dialectic  scholasticism,  which  was  in  no  way  inferior  to 
that  of  the  most  flourishing  period  of  the  middle  ages, 
either  in  the  greatness  or  minuteness  of  the  careful  and 
acute  development  of  its  scientific  form,  or  in  the  full 
and  accurate  exhibition  of  its  religious  contents." 

But  this  great  effort  to  reduce  the  whole  body  of  re- 
ligious truth  to  an  infallible  logical  statement  was  at- 
tended with  unfortunate  results.  Theologians  became 
bigoted  and  intolerant.  In  their  efforts  to  give  Christian 
doctrine  a  scientific  form,  they  lost  its  spirit.  Losing  its 
earlier  freedom  and  life,  Protestantism  degenerated  in 
large  measure  into  what  has  been  called  "  dead  ortho- 
doxy." The  intellectual  apprehension  of  elaborate  creeds 
was  made  the  basis  of  Christian  fellowship.  Christian 
life  counted  for  little,  and  the  Protestant  world  broke 
up  into  opposing  factions.  Says  Kurtz,  who  is  disposed 
to  apologize  for  this  period  as  far  as  possible:  "Like 
mediaeval  scholasticism,  in  its  concern  for  logic  theology 
almost  lost  vitality.  Orthodoxy  degenerated  into  ortho- 
doxism ;  externally,  not  only  discerning  essential  diver- 
sities, but  disregarding  the  broad  basis  of  a  common 


156     FROM  THE  REFORMATION  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME. 

faith,  and  running  into  odious  and  unrestrained  contro- 
versy ;  internally,  holding  to  the  form  of  pure  doctrine, 
but  neglecting  cordially  to  embrace  it,  and  to  live  con- 
sistently with  it." 

The  schools,  which  stand  in  close  relation  to  relig- 
ion, were  naturally  influenced  in  a  large  measure  by  the 
theological  tendencies  of  the  age.  Theological  interests 
imposed  upon  the  schools  a  narrow  range  of  subjects,  a 
mechanical  method  of  instruction,  and  a  cruel  discipline. 
The  principle  of  authority,  exacting  a  blind  submission 
of  the  pupil,  prevailed  in  the  schools  of  every  grade. 
The  young  were  regarded,  not  as  tender  plants  to  be 
carefully  nurtured  and  developed,  but  as  untamed  ani- 
mals to  be  repressed  and  broken.  "Education,"  says 
Dittes,  "  in  the  form  that  it  had  assumed  in  the  sixteenth 
century,  could  not  furnish  a  complete  human  culture. 
In  the  higher  institutions,  and  even  in  the  wretched 
town  schools,  Latin  was  the  Moloch  to  which  countless 
minds  fell  an  offering  in  return  for  the  blessing  granted 
to  a  few.  A  dead  knowledge  of  words  took  the  place 
of  a  living  knowledge  of  things.  Latin  school-books 
supplanted  the  book  of  Nature,  the  book  of  life,  the 
book  of  mankind.  And  in  the  popular  schools  youth- 
ful minds  were  tortured  over  the  spelling-book  and  cate- 
chism. The  method  of  teaching  was  almost  everywhere, 
in  the  primary  as  well  as  in  the  higher  schools,  a  me- 
chanical and  compulsory  drill  in  unintelligible  formulas ; 
the  pupils  were  obliged  to  learn,  but  they  were  not  edu- 
cated to  see  and  hear,  to  think  and  prove,  and  were  not 
led  to  a  true  independence  and  personal  perfection ;  the 
teachers  found  their  function  in  teaching  the  prescribed 
text,  not  in  harmoniously  developing  the  young  human 


ABSTRACT  THEOLOGICAL  EDUCATION.  157 

being  according  to  the  laws  of  Nature — a  process,  more- 
over, that  lay  under  the  ban  of  ecclesiastical  orthodoxy. 
The  discipline  answered  to  the  content  and  spirit  of  the 
instruction ;  it  was  harsh,  and  even  barbarous ;  the  prin- 
ciple was  to  tame  the  pupils,  not  to  educate  them.  They 
were  to  hold  themselves  motionless,  that  the  school  ex- 
ercises might  not  be  disturbed ;  what  took  place  in  their 
minds,  and  how  their  several  characters  were  consti- 
tuted, the  school  pedants  did  not  understand  and  ap- 
preciate." 

This  is  the  darker  side  of  the  theological  influence. 
In  other  particulars,  it  was  favorable  to  the  cause  of  edu- 
cation. It  led  to  a  multiplication  of  schools  of  various 
grades.  Country  schools,  town  schools,  Latin  schools,  or 
gymnasia,  and  universities,  sprang  up  in  Protestant 
countries  under  the  religious  impulse,  and  in  Catholic 
countries  through  a  spirit  of  rivalry  with  their  oppo- 
nents. The  country  or  village  schools  were  connected 
with  the  local  church,  and  were  usually  taught  by  the 
sexton,  or  some  other  subordinate  officer.  The  subjects 
of  instruction  were  originally  the  catechism  and  singing, 
but  to  these  were  subsequently  added  reading,  writing, 
and  arithmetic.  The  schools  were  designed  for  both 
boys  and  girls,  who  were  instructed  sometimes  together, 
and  sometimes  separately.  The  following  order  of  the 
Elector  of  Brandenburg,  issued  in  1573,  shows  us  the 
primitive  form  of  these  schools :  "  Every  Sunday  after- 
noon, or,  with  the  approval  of  the  pastor,  once  during 
the  week,  the  village  sextons  shall  read  to  the  people, 
but  especially  to  the  children  and  young  servants,  the 
Small  Catechism  of  Luther,  without  change,  and  teach 
them  to  pray ;  also,  they  shall  question  them  according 


158     FROM  THE  REFORMATION  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME. 

to  convenience  as  to  what  they  have  learned.  Likewise, 
before  and  after  the  reading  and  repeating  of  the  cate- 
chism, they  shall  sing  and  teach  the  young  people  good, 
Christian,  German  psalms ;  and,  where  there  are  chapels, 
they  shall  conduct  these  exercises  alternately  in  the 
chapels  and  in  the  parent  churches,  in  order  that  the 
youth  in  all  the  villages  may  be  instructed  according  to 
their  need,  and  not  be  neglected." 

With  the  town  schools  it  was  somewhat  better.  The 
range  of  instruction  was  of  a  higher  order ;  the  theo- 
logical influence  was  felt  in  a  less  degree ;  the  needs  of 
practical  life  were  better  kept  in  view.  But  these 
schools  were  still  very  far  from  being  models.  They 
did  not  emancipate  themselves  from  the  mechanical 
methods  and  cruel  discipline  then  in  vogue,  and  the 
teachers,  as  a  rule,  were  unfit  for  their  vocation.  "  The 
majority  of  them,"  says  Dittes,  "were  people  who  on 
account  of  bodily  infirmity  or  mental  incapacity,  often 
also  on  account  of  laziness  or  dissoluteness,  had  suffered 
shipwreck  in  life,  and  had  now  taken  to  teaching  as  a 
last  resort,  particularly  unsuccessful  artisans,  students, 
and  deposed  clergymen."  Everywhere  the  teachers  were 
poorly  paid.  Their  salaries  consisted  in  part  of  eggs  and 
butter,  and  to  maintain  a  li velihood  they  were  forced  to 
engage  in  other  pursuits.  "  They  played  the  violin  at 
dances,  kept  beer-gardens,  carried  on  in  a  small  way 
some  kind  of  trade,  or  in  summer  hired  out  as  day- 
laborers.  The  school  ordinances  of  the  time  contain 
sharp  clauses  in  reference  to  the  scandalous  lives  of  the 
teachers,  as  well  as  against  their  rough  discipline,  and 
admonish  them  to  fidelity  in  duty  and  to  becoming  con- 
duct in  and  out  of  school.  But  this  was  mostly  in  vain ; 


ABSTRACT   THEOLOGICAL   EDUCATION.  159 

for,  where  fitness  is  wanting  among  teachers,  ordinances 
are  of  but  little  utility." 

In  the  Latin  schools  humanism  asserted  itself  by  the 
side  of  theology.  As  indicated  by  the  name,  Latin 
formed  the  chief  subject  of  study.  The  leading  repre- 
sentatives of  the  humanistic  tendency  in  the  second  half 
of  the  sixteenth  century  were  Trotzendorf ,  Michael  Ne- 
ander,  and  John  Sturm.  They  were  all  influenced  by 
Melanchthon,  with  whom  they  maintained  more  or  less 
intimate  relations.  As  directors  of  celebrated  schools, 
they  exerted  a  strong  influence  upon  the  higher  educa- 
tion of  their  time.  Trotzendorf  taught  at  Goldberg, 
Neander  at  Hfeld,  and  Sturm  at  Strasburg.  As  Sturm 
represented  most  completely  the  humanistic  tendency 
of  his  age,  it  is  worth  while  to  consider  his  educational 
work  in  some  detail. 

(A.)  JOHN  STURM. 

John  Sturm  was  born  at  Schleiden,  Prussia,  in  1507 ; 
he  died  at  Strasburg  in  1589.  After  teaching  at  Lou- 
vain  and  Paris,  he  was  appointed  rector  of  the  gym- 
nasium at  Strasburg,  over  which  he  presided  for  forty 
years.  He  boasted  of  his  institution  that  it  reproduced 
the  best  periods  of  Athens  and  Rome ;  and,  in  fact,  he 
succeeded  in  giving  to  his  adopted  city  the  name  of  New 
Athens.  In  religion  he  was  a  Calvinist,  and  he  is  justly 
regarded  as  the  greatest  educator  that  the  Reformed 
Church  produced  during  this  period. 

"  His  ideal  of  education,"  says  Raumer,  "  we  have 
already  learned — piety,  knowledge,  and  eloquence.  He 
clearly  knew  what  he  wished,  and  with  equal  clearness 
he  adopted  means  to  its  attainment.  .  .  .  The  man  was 


160      FROM  THE  REFORMATION  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME. 

of  one  piece,  a  whole  man — a  man  of  character,  in  whom 
strength  of  will  was  admirably  united  with  force  and 
tact  in  execution.  Hence,  it  is  not  to  be  wondered  at 
that  Sturm  found  recognition  among  his  cotemporaries, 
and  enjoyed  their  highest  confidence.  In  1578  the 
Strasburg  school  numbered  several  thousand  pupils, 
among  them  about  two  hundred  of  noble  birth,  twenty- 
four  counts  and  barons,  and  three  princes.  Not  simply 
from  Germany,  but  from  the  most  different  countries, 
from  Portugal  and  Poland,  Denmark,  France,  and  Eng- 
land, youths  were  sent  to  Sturm.  But  his  pedagogical 
activity  was  not  limited  to  the  Strasburg  Gymnasium ; 
in  wide  circles  he  exerted  by  counsel  and  example,  and 
through  his  pupils,  a  very  great  influence  as  a  second 
Preceptor  Germanice" 

The  course  of  study  at  the  Strasburg  Gymnasium  was 
divided  into  ten  classes.  As  this  institution  became  a 
model  for  many  other  classical  schools,  it  is  well  to  pre- 
sent briefly  the  work  of  each  class.  We  thus  gain  a 
clear  insight  into  the  Latin  schools  of  this  period,  and 
are  prepared  to  appreciate  both  their  excellence  and 
their  defects : 

Tenth  Class. — The  alphabet,  reading,  writing.  Latin 
declensions  and  conjugations.  The  German  or  Latin 
catechism. 

Ninth  Class. — Latin  declensions  and  conjugations 
continued.  Memorizing  of  Latin  words  used  in  common 
life.  Irregularities  of  formation  were  introduced. 

Eighth  Class. — Continuation  of  words  in  common 
use.  The  parts  of  speech.  Declension  and  conjugation 
in  connection  with  sentences.  Composition  of  Latin 
phrases.  Some  letters  of  Cicero  were  read  and  ex- 


ABSTRACT   THEOLOGICAL  EDUCATION.  161 

plained.  Toward  the  close  of  the  year,  exercises  in 
style. 

Seventh  Class. — Latin  syntax,  with  a  few  rules  and 
examples  from  Cicero.  Rules  to  be  constantly  applied 
in  reading  Cicero's  letters.  Exercises  in  composition. 
On  Sunday,  translation  of  German  catechism  into  classic 
Latin,  in  which,  however,  such  terms  as  Trinitas,  sacra- 
mentum,  and  laptismus  might  be  employed. 

/Sixth  Class. — Review.  Translation  of  Cicero's  let- 
ters into  German.  Translation  of  Latin  poetry.  On 
Saturday  and  Sunday,  translation  of  catechism,  and  read- 
ing of  some  letters  of  Jerome.  Greek  begun. 

Fifth  Class. — Study  of  words  designating  things 
unknown  to  the  pupils.  Versification.  Mythology. 
Cicero,  and  Yirgil's  Eclogues.  Greek  vocabulary.  Ex- 
ercises in  style  and  Latin  versification.  Translation  of 
oratorical  extracts  into  German,  and  afterward  back 
into  Latin.  On  Saturday  and  Sunday,  one  of  Paul's 
epistles. 

Fourth  Class. — Well  acquainted  with  Latin  and 
Greek  grammar,  the  pupils  were  required  to  read  a  great 
deal,  to  learn  by  heart,  and  to  explain.  The  sixth  ora- 
tion against  Yerres  was  read,  because  it.  contains  almost 
all  kinds  of  narration.  Epistles  of  Horace.  Greek 
grammar  continued,  with  reading.  Exercises  in  style. 
Reviews.  Reading  and  paraphrasing  some  of  Paul's 
epistles. 

Third  Class.  —  Reviews.  Rhetoric.  Oration  pro 
Cluentio.  Select  orations  of  Demosthenes.  The  Iliad 
or  Odyssey.  Paul's  epistles.  Exercises  in  style.  Trans- 
lation of  oratorical  extracts  from  Greek  into  Latin,  and 
from  Latin  into  Greek.  Composition  of  poetry  and  let- 


162     FROM  THE  REFORMATION  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME. 

ters.  Representation  of  the  comedies  of  Plautus  and 
Terence  in  the  four  higher  classes.  All  the  plays  of 
these  authors  to  be  acted. 

Second  Class. — The  pupils  explained,  under  the  direc- 
tion of  the  teacher,  the  Greek  orators  and  poets.  Pe- 
culiarities of  oratorical  and  poetical  language.  Remark- 
able passages  copied.  Dialectic  and  rhetoric  studied  in 
connection  with  orations  of  Cicero  and  Demosthenes. 
Exercises  in  style.  Oratorical  composition  and  declama- 
tion. Memorizing  and  recitation  of  the  Epistle  to  the 
Romans.  Representation  of  the  comedies  of  Terence 
and  Plautus,  and  some  drama  of  Aristophanes,  Euripi- 
des, and  Sophocles. 

First  Class. — Dialectic  and  rhetoric  continued.  Yir- 
gil,  Horace,  Homer.  Translation  of  Thucydides  and 
Sallust.  Weekly  dramatic  entertainments.  All  written 
composition  to  be  artistic.  Reading  and  explanation  of 
Paul's  epistles. 

This  course  has  the  merit  of  being  well  fitted  together, 
and  of  harmoniously  tending  to  the  desired  end.  It  is 
carefully  graded  throughout,  each  class  furnishing  a  defi- 
nite preparation  for  the  succeeding  one.  Yet  it  has  ob- 
vious and  serious  defects.  It  is  too  narrow  in  its  scope. 
An  unjustifiable  prominence  is  given  to  Latin  and 
Greek,  while  many  other  important  studies  are  wholly 
neglected.  History,  mathematics,  natural  science,  and 
the  mother-tongue  are  ignored.  A  great  gap  is  left  be- 
tween the  gymnasium  and  life — a  gap  that  could  not  be 
filled  even  by  the  university.  In  aiming  to  reproduce 
Greece  and  Rome  in  the  midst  of  modern  Christian 
civilization,  Sturm's  scheme  involves  a  vast  anachronism. 

"  And  what  a  strange  mistake,"  exclaims  Paroz,  "  to 


ABSTRACT  THEOLOGICAL  EDUCATION.  1(33 

wish,  to  confine  the  scientific  culture  of  a  nation  in  the 
forms  of  a  foreign  language  !  In  order  to  succeed,  it 
would  have  been  necessary  at  the  start  to  overcome  the 
resistance  of  a  young,  vigorous,  popular,  national  lan- 
guage. But  such  a  result  was  neither  possible  nor  de- 
sirable. The  future  belonged  to  the  mother-tongue; 
and  true  modern  culture,  the  culture  suited  to  modern 
needs  and  to  the  genius  of  the  people,  was  not  found  in 
the  Latin  gymnasia  of  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth 
centuries — it  lay  germinally  in  the  religious  work  of  the 
period ;  that  is,  in  the  translation  of  the  Bible,  in  hymns, 
sermons,  and  catechisms,  and  in  those  poor  popular 
schools  in  which  the  mother-tongue  was  spoken.  "We 
are  astonished  to-day  that  Sturm  did  not  make  the  Ger- 
man language  a  branch  of  instruction,  and  that  he  even 
despised  French  and  German,  although  he  somewhere 
acknowledges  that  Luther  and  Philippe  de  Comines 
have  written  as  well  as  the  most  celebrated  of  the 
ancients." 

Sturm's  influence  extended  to  England,  and  thence 
to  America.  Says  a  recent  English  writer :  "  No  one 
who  is  acquainted  with  the  education  given  at  our  prin- 
cipal classical  schools,  Eton,  Winchester,  and  Westmin- 
ster, forty  years  ago,  can  fail  to  see  that  their  curriculum 
was  framed  in  a  great  degree  on  Sturm's  model.  Dur- 
ing our  own  generation  the  subjects  of  school-teaching 
have  been  largely  multiplied,  and  we  can  afford  to  look 
down  on  the  humanistic  scheme  as  narrow  and  incom- 
plete ;  but  it  had  at  least  this  merit,  that  it  was  a  well- 
considered  plan,  harmonious  in  its  arrangement,  with  its 
parts  well  fitting  into  one  another.  The  master  of  each 
class  knew  precisely  what  the  boys  confided  to  him  were 


164   FROM  THE  REFORMATION  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME. 

expected  to  learn.  When  they  proceeded  to  the  uni- 
versity, the  preliminary  instruction  which  they  took 
with  them  had  been  well  denned." 

(B.)   THE   UNIVERSITIES. 

The  universities  were  affected  most,  perhaps,  by  the 
theological  influences  of  the  period.  These  institutions 
were  established  in  considerable  numbers  for  the  promul- 
gation of  particular  types  of  theology.  The  universities 
estabh'shed  between  1550  and  1700,  with  their  ecclesias- 
tical relations,  are  as  follows:  Strasburg,  Lutheran, 
1621;  Geneva,  Reformed,  1558;  Jena,  Lutheran,  1557; 
Dillingen,  Catholic,  1554 ;  Helmstadt,  Lutheran,  1576  ; 
Altorf,  Lutheran,  1575  ;  Herborn,  Reformed,  1654 ; 
Gratz,  Catholic,  1586 ;  Paderborn,  Catholic,  1592 ;  Gies- 
sen,  Lutheran,  1607;  Rinteln,  Lutheran,  1619;  Salz- 
burg, Catholic,  1622;  Minister,  Catholic,  1631 ;  Osna- 
briick,  Catholic,  1632  ;  Banaberg,  Catholic,  1648 ;  Duis- 
burg,  Reformed,  1655 ;  Kiel,  Lutheran,  1665 ;  Inns- 
pruck,  Catholic,  1670 ;  Halle,  Lutheran,  1694.  Of  these, 
Helmstadt,  Altorf,  Rinteln,  and  Duisburg  were  subse- 
quently dissolved. 

No  important  changes  were  made  in  the  organization 
of  the  universities.  The  course  of  instruction,  which 
continued  in  the  hands  of  the  four  faculties  of  philoso- 
phy, theology,  law,  and  medicine,  remained  narrow. 
History  and  the  modern  tongues  were  entirely  neglect- 
ed ;  mathematics  received  but  little  attention ;  physics, 
astronomy,  and  natural  history — the  only  natural  sciences 
recognized — were  taught  out  of  Aristotle,  Ptolemy,  and 
Pliny;  and  medicine  out  of  Hippocrates  and  Galen. 
Even  Greek  was  accorded  only  an  inferior  position.  In 


ABSTEACT  THEOLOGICAL  EDUCATION.  165 

the  universities,  as  in  the  gymnasia,  Latin  was  the  chief 
subject  of  study.  "Thus  was  the  circle  of  studies," 
says  Raumer,  "  at  the  schools  as  at  the  universities  ex- 
tremely restricted,  as  compared  with  the  range  of  sub- 
jects in  our  time.  It  is  clear,  as  I  have  repeatedly  re- 
marked, that  all  the  time  and  strength  of  the  youth  were 
forcibly  concentrated  upon  the  learning  and  exercising 
of  Latin.  Grammar  was  studied  for  years  in  order  to 
learn  to  speak  and  write  Latin  correctly;  dialectic,  in 
order  to  use  it  logically  ;  and  rhetoric,  in  order  to  handle 
It  oratorically.  Facility  was  sought  by  means  of  debate, 
declamation,  and  representations  of  Terence.  The  clas- 
sics were  read  in  order  to  collect  words  and  phrases 
from  them  for  speaking  and  writing,  without  particular 
concern  for  the  thought." 

The  state  of  morals  at  the  universities  of  the  six- 
teenth and  seventeenth  centuries  was  very  low.  Idle- 
ness, drunkenness,  disorder,  and  licentiousness  prevailed 
in  an  unparalleled  degree.  The  practice  of  hazing  was 
universal,  and  new  students  were  subjected  to  shocking 
indignities.  The  following  graphic  description,  con- 
tained in  a  rescript  of  Duke  Albrecht  of  Saxony  to  the 
University  of  Jena  in  1624,  would  apply  equally  well  to 
any  other  university  of  the  time :  "  Customs  before  un- 
heard of,"  he  says,  "inexcusable,  unreasonable,  and 
wholly  barbarian,  have  come  into  existence.  When  any 
person,  either  of  high  or  low  rank,  goes  to  any  of  our 
universities  for  the  sake  of  pursuing  his  studies,  he  is 
called  by  the  insulting  names  of  pennal,  fox,  tape-worm, 
and  the  like,  and  treated  as  such ;  and  insulted,  abused, 
derided,  and  hooted  at,  until,  against  his  will,  and  to  the 
great  injury  and  damage  of  himself  and  his  parents,  he 


166     FROM  THE  REFORMATION  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME. 

has  prepared,  given,  and  paid  for  a  stately  and  expensive 
'entertainment.  And  at  this  there  happen,  without  any 
fear  of  God  or  man,  innumerable  disorders  and  excesses, 
blasphemies,  breaking  up  of  stoves,  doors,  and  windows, 
throwing  about  of  books  and  drinking-vessels,  looseness 
of  words  and  actions,  and  in  eating  and  drinking,  dan- 
gerous wounds,  and  other  ill  deeds ;  shames,  scandals, 
and  all  manner  of  vicious  and  godless  actions,  even 
sometimes  extending  to  murder  or  fatal  injuries.  And 
these  doings  are  frequently  not  confined  to  one  such 
feast,  but  are  continued  for  days  together  at  meals,  at 
lectures,  privately  and  publicly,  even  in  the  public  streets, 
by  all  manner  of  misdemeanors  in  sitting,  standing,  or 
going,  such  as  outrageous  howls,  breaking  into  houses 
and  windows,  and  the  like ;  so  that  by  such  immoral, 
wild,  and  vicious  courses,  not  only  do  our  universities 
perceptibly  lose  in  good  reputation,  but  many  parents  in 
distant  places  either  determine  not  to  send  their  children 
at  all  to  this  university — founded  with  such  great  ex- 
pense by  our  honored  ancestors,  now  resting  in  peace 
with  God,  and  thus  far  maintained  by  ourselves — or  to 
take  them  away  again." 

The  custom  of  hazing  was  broken  up  in  Germany 
about  1660,  after  which  time  the  moral  condition  of  the 
universities  showed  a  marked  improvement. 

(C.)   THE   JESUITS. 

"Within  the  Catholic  Church  education  was  promoted 
chiefly  by  the  Jesuits.  This  order,  established  by  Ig- 
natius Loyola,  found  its  special  mission  in  combating 
the  Reformation.  As  the  most  effective  means  of  arrest- 
ing the  progress  of  Protestantism,  it  aimed  at  controlling 


ABSTRACT  THEOLOGICAL  EDUCATION.  167 

education,  particularly  among  the  wealthy  and  the  noble. 
In  rivalry  with  the  schools  of  Protestant  countries,  it 
developed  an  immense  educational  activity,  and  earned 
for  its  schools  a  great  reputation.  They  were  praised 
and  patronized  even  by  Protestants.  Bacon  says :  "  Take 
example  by  the  schools  of  the  Jesuits,  for  better  do  not 
exist.  When  I  look  at  the  diligence  and  activity  of  the 
Jesuits,  both  in  imparting  knowledge  and  in  molding 
the  heart,  I  bethink  me  of  the  exclamation  of  Agesilaus 
concerning  Pharnabazas:  'Since  thou  art  so  noble,  I 
would  thou  wert  on  our  side ! ' " 

The  organization  was  perhaps  the  most  compact  that 
has  ever  existed.  Only  men  of  marked  ability  were  ad- 
mitted to  it,  and  on  entering  they  gave  up  their  person- 
ality in  complete  consecration  to  the  interests  of  the 
order.  The  will  of  the  general  was  supreme,  and  from 
his  headquarters  in  Rome  he  could  direct  the  movements 
of  the  society  with  absolute  precision  and  certainty.  A 
more  formidable  foe  has  never  faced  Protestantism.  The 
following  are  some  of  the  principles  of  the  organization, 
as  given  by  Pascal :  1.  The  end  sanctifies  the  means. 
2.  Mental  reservations  are  allowable  in  making  prom- 
ises and  in  taking  oaths.  3.  Philosophically,  every 
transgression  against  a  divine  commandment  is  sin — 
theologically,  only  such  violations  as  are  perpetrated 
with  full  consciousness  of  the  wrong,  and  a  set  pur- 
pose to  break  God's  law. 

From  the  time  of  its  organization  the  Jesuit  so- 
ciety worked  with  indomitable  energy.  Its  principles 
and  methods  were  covered  up  by  an  attractive  religious 
zeal.  Not  only  Catholic  but  also  a  portion  of  Prot- 
estant Europe  aided  its  growth,  and  in  the  course  of  a 


168      FROM  THE  REFORMATION  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME. 

few  years  the  order  arrived  at  immense  power.  More 
than  any  other  agency  it  stayed  the  progress  of  the 
Reformation,  and  it  even  succeeded  in  winning  back 
territory  already  conquered  by  Protestantism.  Although 
employing  the  pulpit  and  the  confessional,  it  worked 
chiefly  through  its  schools,  of  which  it  established  and 
controlled  large  numbers.  Education  in  all  Catholic 
countries  gradually  passed  into  its  hands.  In  1710  the 
order  had  no  less  than  six  hundred  and  twelve  colleges, 
one  hundred  and  fifty-seven  normal  schools,  twenty-four 
universities,  and  two  hundred  missions.  These  institu- 
tions had  a  large  patronage.  In  1675  the  College  of 
Clermont  numbered  three  thousand  students.  "  The 
Jesuits,"  says  James  Freeman  Clarke,  "  spread  over  Eu- 
rope in  a  few  years,  taking  possession  of  the  pulpits,  the 
schools,  and  the  confessionals.  They  were  most  accom- 
plished and  popular  preachers,  and  filled  anew  the  de- 
serted churches.  They  supplanted  other  priests  in  the 
care  of  consciences,  and  their  schools  were  filled  with 
the  children  of  all  classes,  for  they  taught  not  only  gra- 
tuitously but  well." 

But  the  order  could  not  continue  in  its  course  of 
brilliant  success.  In  spite  of  the  ability,  zeal,  and  self- 
sacrifice  of  its  members,  it  excited  opposition  by  its 
ambitious  schemes  and  increasing  power.  After  having 
been  banished  from  nearly  every  country  of  Europe,  the 
order  was  finally  abolished  by  Pope  Clement  XIV.,  in 
1773.  Though  since  revived  and  possessed  of  former 
energy  and  zeal,  it  is  not  so  powerful. 

"With  this  rapid  sketch  before  us,  we  can  study  the 
Jesuit  system  of  education  with  greater  interest  and 
profit.  This  system,  based  on  a  draft  prepared  by 


ABSTRACT  THEOLOGICAL  EDUCATION.  169 

Loyola  himself,  was  elaborately  set  forth  in  a  "  plan  of 
studies "  prepared  in  1588;  and,  though  it  underwent 
some  slight  modification  in  1832  to  accommodate  it,  in 
some  degree,  to  modern  needs,  it  has  remained  without 
essential  change.  Whatever  its  defects  as  a  system  of  gen- 
eral education,  it  was  admirably  suited  to  Jesuit  purposes, 
and  in  some  particulars  it  embodied  valuable  principles. 
Every  member  of  the  order  became  a  competent  and 
practical  teacher.  He  received  a  thorough  course  in  the 
ancient  classics,  philosophy,  and  theology.  During  the 
progress  of  his  later  studies  he  was  required  to  teach. 
In  the  Jesuit  schools  there  was  a  lower  and  a  higher 
course  of  instruction.  The  lower  course,  which  closely 
corresponds  to  Sturm's,  occupied  six  years,  the  classes 
being  arranged  as  follows : 

1.  Rudiments  of  Latin  grammar. 

2.  Middle  grammar  class. 

3.  Latin  syntax. 

4.  The  humanities. 

5.  Rhetoric  (two  years). 

Arithmetic,  history,  and  natural  science  occupied  a 
very  subordinate  place.  As  the  language  of  the  Roman 
Church,  Latin  was  the  principal  subject  of  study.  Great 
thoroughness  was  aimed  at.  "  A  knowledge  of  syntax," 
says  the  "  plan  of  studies,"  above  referred  to,  "  is  not  tlie 
end  of  grammar ;  pupils  ought  to  learn  Latin  as  a  living 
language;  they  ought  to  be  able  to  read,  speak,  and 
write  it."  Ancient  literature  was  esteemed,  not  for  its 
thought,  but  for  its  style.  "The  study  of  classic  au- 
thors," says  the  "  plan,"  "  can  have  for  us  only  a  second- 
ary end,  namely,  to  form  the  style;  we  wish  nothing 
more.  Style  will  be  formed  essentially  after  Cicero. 


170     FROM  THE  REFORMATION  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME. 

Pupils,  both  in  speaking  and  in  writing,  will  make  use 
of  classic  phrases."  Greek  was  cultivated  with  success. 

The  Jesuits  were  hostile  to  the  mother-tongue ;  and, 
distrusting  the  influence  of  its  associations,  they  assidu- 
ously endeavored  to  supplant  it.  Says  the  "plan  of 
studies  "  :  "  All  use  of  the  mother-tongue  should  be  for- 
bidden. Those  who  make  use  of  it  ought  to  bear  a  mark 
of  humiliation,  to  which  a  light  punishment  also  should 
be  added,  unless  the  pupil  succeed  the  same  day  in 
throwing  the  double  load  upon  a  comrade  whom  he  has 
detected,  in  school  or  upon  the  street,  committing  the 
same  fault." 

The  religious  element  of  education  was  strongly 
emphasized.  This  is  shown  by  the  following  extract : 
"Religion,"  says  the  "plan  of  studies,"  "ought  to  be 
the  base  and  summit,  the  center  and  soul  of  all  study, 
of  all  education.  It  is  necessary  first  of  all  that  the 
young  man  make  progress  in  the  knowledge  of  his  Cre- 
ator and  of  his  Saviour,  and  that  he  increase  in  morality 
as  he  develops  in  intelligence.  The  teacher  should  serve 
as  example  to  his  pupils;  he  will  fear  to  give  them 
offense,  and  will  pray  for  them.  He  will  recommend 
them  with  great  confidence  to  the  Holy  Virgin  and  to 
the  patron  saints  of  youth,  to  Saint  Joseph,  Saint  Cath- 
erine, etc.  That  humility  will  be  cultivated  which  seeks, 
not  the  glory  of  the  world,  but  of  God.  "What  touches 
on  vice  will  be  held  vile  and  bad.  The  will  of  every 
one  will  identify  itself  with  the  will  of  the  superior,* 
which  is  to  be  respected  and  followed  as  the  will  of 
Christ.  The  teacher  will  see  to  it  that  the  pupils  read, 
recite,  and  offer  mentally  certain  prayers.  .  .  .  The 

*  The  general  of  the  order. 


ABSTRACT   THEOLOGICAL   EDUCATION. 

pupil  that  neglects  his  religious  duties  will  be  punished; 
he  will  be  compelled  to  pass  some  time  in  prayer,  or  on 
festival  days  to  attend  a  second  mass.  Pupils  that  dis- 
tinguish themselves  by  their  devotion  should  be  publicly 
praised." 

The  studies  were  few  in  number,  and  carefully  ad- 
justed to  the  pupil's  ability.  In  all  cases  short  lessons 
and  thorough  work  was  the  rule.  The  memory  was  at- 
tentively cultivated  ;  and,  to  this  end,  reviews  were 
made  at  the  close  of  each  week,  month,  and  term.  To 
gain  influence  with  the  higher  classes,  from  which  they 
desired  to  draw  their  chief  patronage,  the  Jesuits  cul- 
tivated elegant  manners,  and  encouraged  physical  train- 
ing by  means  of  gymnastics.  A  strict  watch,  which 
often  assumed  the  form  of  hateful  espionage,  was  kept 
over  the  pupiL  Corporal  punishment,  resorted  to  only 
in  extreme  cases,  was  administered,  not  by  a  member  of 
the  order,  but  by  a  corrector  kept  for  that  purpose. 
The  "  plan  of  studies  "  explains  this  precaution  :  "  Pu- 
pils," it  says,  "that  in  view  of  their  age  or  exterior 
appear  weak,  insignificant,  and  perhaps  contemptible, 
will  soon  be  youths  and  men,  who  may  attain  to  po- 
sition, fortune,  or  power,  so  that  it  is  possible  we  may 
be  obliged  to  seek  their  favor,  or  to  depend  upon  their 
will ;  this  is  why  it  is  important  to  consider  well  the 
manner  of  treating  and  punishing  them." 

The  Jesuits  made  much  of  emulation,  and  in  their 
eager  desire  to  promote  it  they  adopted  means  that  could 
not  fail  to  excite  jealousy  and  envy.  Says  the  "  plan  of 
studies  " :  "  He  who  knows  how  to  excite  emulation  has 
found  the  most  powerful  auxiliary  in  his  teaching.  Let 
the  teacher,  then,  highly  appreciate  this  valuable  aid, 


172  FROM  THE  REFORMATION  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME. 

and  let  him  study  to  make  the  wisest  use  of  it.  Emu- 
lation awakens  and  develops  all  the  powers  of  man.  In 
order  to  maintain  emulation,  it  will  be  necessary  that 
each  pupil  have  a  rival  to  control  his  conduct  and  criti- 
cise him ;  also  magistrates,  quaestors,  censors,  and  de- 
curions  should  be  appointed  among  the  students.  Noth- 
ing will  be  held  more  honorable  than  to  outstrip  a  fellow- 
student,  and  nothing  more  dishonorable  than  to  be  out- 
stripped. Prizes  will  be  distributed  to  the  best  pupils 
with  the  greatest  possible  solemnity.  Out  of  school  the 
place  of  honor  will  everywhere  be  given  to  the  most 
distinguished  pupils." 

The  higher  course  of  instruction  usually  extended 
through  six  years.  Two  years  were  devoted  to  philoso- 
phy, including  psychology,  logic,  ethics,  and  mathemat- 
ics. Aristotle  furnished  the  leading  text-books.  Four 
years  were  given  to  theology,  including  holy  Scripture, 
Hebrew,  and  the  writings  of  the  scholastics. 

It  only  remains  to  sum  up  in  a  word  the  results  of 
this  investigation.  The  Jesuit  system  of  education, 
based  not  upon  a  study  of  man,  but  upon  the  interests 
of  the  order,  was  necessarily  narrow.  It  sought  showy 
results  with  which  to  dazzle  the  world.  A  well-rounded 
development  was  nothing.  The  principle  of  authority, 
suppressing  all  freedom  and  independence  of  thought, 
prevailed  from  beginning  to  end.  Religious  pride  and 
intolerance  were  fostered.  While  our  baser  feelings  were 
highly  stimulated,  the  nobler  side  of  our  nature  was  whol- 
ly neglected.  Love  of  country,  fidelity  to  friends,  noble- 
ness of  character,  enthusiasm  for  beautiful  ideals,  were 
insidiously  suppressed.  For  the  rest,  we  adopt  the  lan- 
guage of  Quick :  "  The  Jesuits  did  not  aim  at  developing 


REACTION. 

all  the  faculties  of  their  pupils,  but  merely  the  receptive 
and  reproductive  faculties.  When  the  young  man  had 
acquired  a  thorough  mastery  of  the  Latin  language  for 
all  purposes ;  when  he  was  well  versed  in  the  theological 
and  philosophical  opinions  of  his  preceptors ;  when  he 
was  skillful  in  dispute,  and  could  make  a  brilliant  dis- 
play from  the  resources  of  a  well-stored  memory,  he  had 
reached  the  highest  points  to  which  the  Jesuits  sought 
to  lead  him.  Originality  and  independence  of  mind, 
love  of  truth  for  its  own  sake,  the  power  of  reflecting, 
and  of  forming  correct  judgments,  were  not  merely 
neglected,  they  were  suppressed  in  the  Jesuits'  system. 
But  in  what  they  attempted  they  were  eminently  suc- 
cessful, and  then*  success  went  a  long  way  toward  secur- 
ing their  popularity." 


5.  REACTION  AGAINST  ABSTRACT  THEOLOGICAL 
EDUCATION. 

Hitherto  we  have  considered  the  darker  aspects  of 
the  seventeenth  century,  but  there  is  a  brighter  side 
which  is  now  to  claim  our  attention.  By  the  side  of 
narrow  theological  and  humanistic  tendencies,  there  was 
developed  a  liberal  progressive  spirit,  in  which  lay  the 
hope  of  the  future.  It  freed  itself  from  traditional 
opinions,  and  pushed  its  investigations  everywhere  in 
search  of  new  truth.  In  England  Bacon  set  forth  his 
inductive  method,  by  which  he  gave  an  immense  im- 
pulse to  the  study  of  Nature ;  in  France  Descartes  laid 
a  solid  foundation  for  intellectual  science ;  and  in  Ger- 
many Leibnitz  "  quickly  reached  the  bound  and  farthest 
limit  of  human  wisdom,  to  overleap  that  line  and  push 


174:     FROM  THE  REFORMATION  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME. 

onward  into  regions  hitherto  unexplored,  and  dwell 
among  yet  undiscovered  truths."  Great  progress  was 
made  in  the  natural  sciences.  Galileo  invented  the  tele- 
scope, and  discovered  the  moons  of  Jupiter.  Newton 
discovered  the  law  of  gravitation,  and  explained  the 
theory  of  colors.  Harvey  found  out  the  circulation  of 
the  blood.  Torricelli  invented  the  barometer,  Guericke 
the  air-pump,  Napier  logarithms.  Pascal  ascertained 
that  the  air  has  weight,  and  Koemer  measured  the  ve- 
locity of  light.  Kepler  announced  the  laws  of  planetary 
motion.  Louis  XIY.  established  the  French  Academy 
of  Sciences,  and  Charles  II.  the  Koyal  Society  of  Eng- 
land. 

The  progress  in  literature  was  no  less  marked.  Upon 
two  European  nations  the  golden  age  of  letters  shed  its 
luster.  In  England,  Bacon,  Shakespeare,  and  Milton 
wrote ;  in  France,  Corneille,  Moliere,  and  Eacine.  "  No 
other  country,"  says  Macaulay,  "  could  produce  a  tragic 
poet  equal  to  Eacine,  a  comic  poet  equal  to  Moliere,  a 
trifler  so  agreeable  as  La  Fontaine,  a  rhetorician  so  skill- 
ful as  Bossuet.  Besides  these,  who  were  easily  first, 
there  were  Pascal,  whose  'Provincial  Letters'  created  a 
standard  for  French  prose;  Fenelon,  whose  'Telemachus' 
still  retains  its  wonderful  popularity ;  Boileau,  who  has 
been  styled  the  Horace  of  France ;  Madame  de  Sevigne, 
whose  graceful  letters  are  models  of  epistolary  style; 
and  Massillon,  who  pronounced  over  the  grave  of  Louis 
XIV.  a  eulogy  ending  with  the  sublime  words,  '  God 
alone  is  great ! ' ' 

All  over  Europe  the  human  mind,  gradually  coming 
to  a  sense  of  its  native  dignity  and  power,  was  emanci- 
pating itself  from  traditional  and  ecclesiastical  authority. 


REACTION.  175 

Reason  was  asserting  its  rights.  In  the  presence  of  this 
independent  and  investigating  spirit,  the  imperfections 
of  the  existing  education — its  one-sidedness,  its  narrow 
and  unpractical  course  of  study,  its  unworthy  aims,  its 
mechanical  methods  and  cruel  discipline — could  not 
escape  attention.  Prophetic  voices  were  raised  against 
it,  its  leading  defects  were  noted,  and  many  of  the  prin- 
ciples and  methods  now  employed  in  our  best  schools 
were  given  to  the  world.  Says  Karl  Schmidt :  "  Books, 
words,  had  been  the  subjects  of  instruction  during  the 
period  of  abstract  theological  education.  The  knowl- 
edge of  things  was  wanting.  Instead  of  the  things 
themselves,  words  about  the  things  were  taught — and 
these,  taken  from  the  books  of  the  '  ancients '  about  stars, 
the  forces  of  Nature,  stones,  plants,  animals — astronomy 
without  observations,  anatomy  without  dissection  of  the 
human  body,  physics  without  experiments,  etc.  Then 
appeared  in  the  most  different  countries  of  Europe  an 
intellectual  league  of  men  who  made  it  their  work  to 
torn  away  from  dead  words  to  living  nature,  and  from 
mechanical  to  organic  instruction.  They  were  indeed 
only  preachers  in  the  wilderness,  but  they  were  the  pio- 
neers of  a  new  age."  These  now  come  before  us. 

(A.)   MONTAIGNE. 

Montaigne,  a  celebrated  writer  of  France,  was  bom 
in  1533.  Great  care  was  taken  with  his  education.  At 
an  early  age  he  was  intrusted  to  a  German  tutor  who 
did  not  understand  French,  and  who  employed  Latin  in 
communicating  with  his  pupil.  As  a  result,  he  was  able 
at  the  age  of  six  years  to  speak  Latin.  At  thirteen  he 
completed  his  studies  at  the  College  of  Guienne,  at  Bor- 


176     FROM  THE  REFORMATION  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME. 

deaux,  and  subsequently  studied  law.  At  twenty  he  was 
elected  a  member  of  the  Parliament  of  Bordeaux,  and 
was  afterward  chosen  mayor  of  the  city.  But  possessed 
of  ample  means,  and  having  no  political  ambition,  he 
withdrew  to  his  estate  to  live  in  philosophic  retirement. 
It  was  here  that  he  produced  his  celebrated  "  Essays  " — 
tracts  on  all  sorts  of  subjects  caught  up  apparently  by 
chance,  and  written  in  an  easy  colloquial  style. 

In  his  essays,  which  abound  in  unpretentious  wis- 
dom, Montaigne  repeatedly  touches  on  education.  His 
views,  which  are  far  in  advance  of  his  age,  exhibit  a 
strong  reactionary  tendency.  He  points  out  with  sin- 
gular clearness  and  force  many  of  the  defects  of  the  pre- 
vailing education.  He  grasped  the  true  idea  of  educa- 
tion. "  It  is  not  a  soul,"  he  says,  "  it  is  not  a  body  that 
we  are  training  up,  but  a  man,  and  we  ought  not  to  di- 
vide him." 

In-  reference  to  the  study  of  languages,  he  says : 
"  Fine  speaking  is  a  very  good  and  commendable  qual- 
ity, but  not  so  excellent  or  so  necessary  as  some  would 
make  it ;  and  I  am  scandalized  that  our  whole  life  should 
be  spent  in  nothing  eke.  I  would  first  understand  my 
own  language,  and  that  of  my  neighbor  with  whom  most 
of  my  business  and  conversation  lies.  No  doubt  Greek 
and  Latin  are  very  great  ornaments,  and  of  very  great 
use ;  but  we  may  buy  them  too  dear." 

He  does  not  set  a  high  estimate  upon  the  knowledge 
which  the  student  acquires  under  the  humanistic  scheme. 
"  Do  but  observe  him,"  he  says,  "  when  he  comes  back 
from  school,  after  fifteen  or  sixteen  years  that  he  has 
been  there,  there  is  nothing  so  awkward  and  maladroit, 
so  unfit  for  company  or  employment ;  and  all  that  you 


REACTION. 

shall  find  he  has  got  is,  that  his  Latin  and  Greek  have 
only  made  him  a  greater  and  more  conceited  coxcomb 
than  when  he  went  from  home.  He  should  bring  his 
soul  replete  with  good  literature,  and  he  brings  it  only 
swelled  and  puffed  up  with  vain  and  empty  shreds  and 
snatches  of  learning,  and  has  really  nothing  more  in  him 
than  he  had  before." 

Montaigne  strongly  inveighs  against  the  mechanical 
methods  in  vogue.  "  It  is  the  custom  of  schoolmasters," 
he  says,  "  to  be  eternally  thundering  in  their  pupils'  ears 
as  if  they  were  pouring  into  a  funnel,  while  the  pupils' 
business  is  only  to  repeat  what  their  masters  have  said. 
Now,  I  would  have  a  tutor  correct  this  error,  and  that  at 
the  very  first ;  he  should,  according  to  the  capacity  he  has 
to  deal  with,  put  it  to  the  test,  permitting  his  pupil  him- 
self to  taste  and  relish  things,  and  of  himself  to  choose 
and  discern  them,  the  tutor  sometimes  opening  the  way 
to  him,  and  sometimes  making  him  break  the  ice  him- 
self ;  that  is,  I  would  not  have  the  tutor  alone  to  invent 
and  speak,  but  that  he  should  also  hear  his  pupils  speak." 

Of  the  cramming  process  then  current,  particularly 
among  the  Jesuits,  Montaigne  says :  "  Too  much  learn- 
ing stifles  the  soul,  just  as  plants  are  stifled  by  too  much 
moisture,  and  lamps  by  too  much  oil.  Our  pedants 
plunder  knowledge  from  books  and  carry  it  on  the  tip 
of  their  lips,  just  as  birds  carry  seeds  to  feed  their  young. 
The  care  and  expense  our  parents  are  at  in  our  education 
point  at  nothing  but  to  furnish  our  heads  with  knowl- 
edge ;  but  not  a  word  of  judgment  or  virtue.  We  toil 
and  labor  only  to  stuff  the  memory,  but  leave  the  con- 
science and  understanding  unfurnished  and  void." 

In  reference  to  discipline,  Montaigne  says:  "Educa- 


178  FROM  THE  REFORMATION  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME. 

tion  ought  to  be  carried  on  with  a  severe  sweetness  quite 
contrary  to  the  practice  of  our  pedants,  who,  instead  of 
tempting  and  alluring  children  to  letters  by  apt  and 
gentle  ways,  do  in  truth  present  nothing  before  them 
but  rods  and  ferules,  horror  and  cruelty.  Away  with 
this  violence !  away  with  this  compulsion !  than  which  I 
certainly  believe  nothing  more  dulls  and  degenerates  a 
well-descended  nature.  If  you  would  have  him  appre- 
hend shame  and  chastisement,  do  not  harden  him  to 
them." 

Interesting  and  valuable  extracts  might  be  indefi- 
nitely multiplied,  but  one  more,  relating  to  the  chief 
subject  of  study,  must  suffice.  "  This  great  world,"  says 
Montaigne,  "is  the  mirror  wherein  we  are  to  behold 
ourselves,  to  be  able  to  know  ourselves  as  we  ought  to 
do.  In  short,  I  would  have  this  to  be  the  book  my 
young  gentleman  should  study  with  the  most  attention ; 
for  so  many  humors,  so  many  sects,  so  many  judgments, 
opinions,  laws,  and  customs,  teach  us  to  judge  right  of 
our  own,  and  inform  our  understandings  to  discover 
their  imperfection  and  natural  infirmity,  which  is  no 
trivial  speculation.  So  many  mutations  of  states  and 
kingdoms,  and  so  many  turns  and  revolutions  of  public 
fortune,  will  make  us  wise  enough  to  make  no  great 
wonder  of  our  own.  So  many  great  names,  so  many 
famous  victories  and  conquests  drowned  and  swallowed 
in  oblivion,  render  our  hopes  ridiculous  of  eternizing 
our  names  by  the  taking  of  half  a  score  of  light-horse, 
or  a  paltry  turret,  which  only  derives  its  memory  from 
its  ruin.  The  pride  and  arrogance  of  so  many  foreign 
pomps  and  ceremonies,  the  tumorous  majesty  of  so  many 
courts  and  grandeurs,  accustom  and  fortify  our  sight 


REACTION.  179 

without  astonishment  to  behold  and  endure  the  luster  of 
our  own.  So  many  millions  of  men  buried  before  us, 
encourage  us  not  to  fear  to  go  seek  so  good  company  in 
the  other  world." 

(B.)  BACON. 

Francis  Bacon,  who  has  done  more  perhaps  for  the 
advancement  of  knowledge  than  any  other  man  of  mod- 
ern times,  was  born  in  London  in  1550.  He  was  of 
deh'cate  constitution,  but  endued  with  remarkable  intel- 
lectual power.  From  childhood  he  manifested  a  philo- 
sophical turn  of  mind,  and  it  is  related  of  him  that  he 
stole  away  from  his  playmates  to  indulge  his  thought 
and  spirit  of  investigation.  Queen  Elizabeth,  delighted 
with  his  youthful  precocity,  playfully  called  him  her 
young  Lord  Keeper.  At  thirteen  he  was  matriculated 
at  the  University  of  Cambridge,  and  it  was  not  long  till 
his  keen  penetration  detected  the  faults  belonging  to 
the  higher  education  of  the  time.  lie  found  himself, 
to  use  his  own  language,  "  amid  men  of  sharp  and  strong 
wits,  and  abundance  of  leisure,  and  small  variety  of 
reading,  their  wits  being  shut  up  in  the  cells  of  a  few 
authors,  chiefly  Aristotle,  their  dictator,  as  their  persons 
were  shut  up  in  the  cells  of  monasteries  and  colleges ; 
and  who,  knowing  little  history,  either  of  nature  or  time, 
did,  out  of  no  great  quantity  of  matter,  and  infinite  agi- 
tation of  wit,  spin  cobwebs  of  learning,  admirable  for 
the  fineness  of  thread  and  work,  but  of  no  substance  or 
profit." 

He  remained  at  the  university  three  years.  After 
spending  some  time  in  Paris,  where  he  made  the  ac- 
quaintance of  many  distinguished  persons,  he  returned 


180     FROM  THE  REFORMATION  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME. 

to  England,  and  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  law,  in 
which  he  speedily  made  profound  attainments.  Owing 
to  the  opposition  of  his  uncle,  Cecil,  who  held  the  po- 
sition of  prime  minister,  he  was  kept  for  a  time  from 
any  post  of  prominence  and  emolument.  In  1590  he 
was  made  counsel-extraordinary  to  the  queen — a  po- 
sition of  more  honor  than  profit.  Two  years  later  he 
entered  Parliament  as  member  from  Middlesex.  His 
legal  and  political  functions  did  not  wholly  absorb  the 
energies  of  his  mind,  and  in  1597  he  published  a  volume 
of  "  Essays,"  which  alone  would  have  sufficed  to  give 
him  an  honorable  place  in  English  literature. 

After  the  accession  of  James  I.,  in  1603,  Bacon  rose 
rapidly  in  position  and  honor.  That  year  he  was  ele- 
vated to  the  order  of  knighthood,  and  in  the  following 
year  he  was  appointed  salaried  counsel  to  the  king — a 
mark  of  favor  almost  without  precedent.  In  1613  he 
was  advanced  to  the  office  of  attorney-general.  In  1617 
he  was  created  Lord  Keeper  of  the  Great  Seal  of  Eng- 
land— a  dignity  of  which  he  was  proud.  The  following 
year  he  was  made  Lord  High  Chancellor,  the  summit  of 
his  ambition  and  political  elevation. 

In  these  positions,  Bacon's  conduct  was  not  above 
reproach.  He  truckled  to  the  king ;  he  was  guilty  of 
gross  ingratitude  to  Essex,  one  of  his  greatest  benefac- 
tors; and,  worst  of  all,  he  was  convicted  on  his  own 
confession  of  accepting  bribes.  He  was  condemned  to 
pay  an  enormous  fine,  and  to  be  confined  in  the  Tower 
during  the  royal  pleasure ;  but  these  penalties,  after  he 
was  imprisoned  two  days,  were  remitted  by  the  king, 
who  was  not  free  himself  from  implication  in  the  crimes 
of  his  chancellor.  The  rest  of  Bacon's  days  were  spent 


REACTION.  181 

in  poverty,  disgrace,  and  repentance.  He  died  in  1626, 
about  five  years  after  his  fall. 

The  numerous  works  of  Bacon,  written  in  the  leisure 
moments  snatched  from  official  duties,  established  his 
reputation  throughout  Europe  as  the  leading  English 
philosopher.  He  has  repeatedly  touched  upon  education 
in  his  writings,  and  everywhere  with  the  hand  of  a  mas- 
ter. He  holds  a  prominent  place  in  the  line  of  educa- 
tional reformers.  "This  significance,"  says  Raumer, 
"  Bacon  receives  as  the  first  to  say  to  the  learned  men 
who  lived  and  toiled  in  the  languages  and  writings  of 
antiquity,  and  who  were  mostly  only  echoes  of  the  old 
Greeks  and  Romans,  yea,  who  knew  nothing  better  than 
to  be  such :  '  There  is  also  a  present ;  only  open  your 
eyes  to  recognize  its  splendor.  Turn  away  from  the 
shallow  springs  of  traditional  natural  science,  and  draw 
from  the  unfathomable  and  ever  freshly  flowing  fountain 
of  creation.  Live  in  Nature  with  active  senses ;  ponder 
it  in  your  thoughts,  and  learn  to  comprehend  it,  for  thus 
you  will  be  able  also  to  control  it.  Power  increases  with 
knowledge.' " 

Bacon's  first  great  philosophical  work,  published  in 
1605,  was  the  "  Advancement  of  Learning."  It  was  the 
aim  of  this  work  to  take  a  complete  survey  of  the  field 
of  knowledge,  for  the  purpose  of  indicating  what  depart- 
ments of  learning  had  received  due  attention,  and  what 
subjects  yet  needed  cultivation.  To  use  his  own  words : 
"  I  have  made,  as  it  were,  a  small  globe  of  the  intellectual 
world,  as  truly  and  faithfully  as  I  could  discover ;  with 
a  note  and  description  of  those  parts  which  seem  to  me 
not  constantly  occupate,  or  not  well  converted  by  the 
labor  of  man." 


182  FROM  THE  REFORMATION  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME. 

In  this  work  lie  was  naturally  led  to  treat  of  various 
aspects  of  education.  He  regarded  it  as  a  defect  in  the 
universities  of  the  time  that  they  were  devoted  to  pro- 
fessional studies  rather  than  to  general  learning.  A  lib- 
eral culture  is  insisted  on  as  the  basis  of  a  professional 
career.  "  If  men  judge,"  he  says,  "  that  learning  should 
be  referred  to  action,  they  judge  well ;  but  in  this  they 
fall  into  the  error  described  in  the  ancient  fable,  in  which 
the  other  parts  of  the  body  did  suppose  the  stomach  had 
been  idle,  because  it  neither  performed  the  office  of  mo- 
tion, as  the  limbs  do,  nor  of  sense,  as  the  head  doth ;  but 
yet,  notwithstanding,  it  is  the  stomach  that  digesteth 
and  distributeth  to  all  the  rest :  so,  if  any  man  think 
philosophy  and  universality  to  be  idle  studies,  he  doth 
not  consider  that  all  professions  are  from  thence  served 
and  supplied.  And  this  I  take  to  be  a  great  cause  that 
hath  hindered  the  progression  of  learning,  because  these 
fundamental  knowledges  have  been  studied  but  in  pas- 
sage. For,  if  you  will  have  a  tree  bear  more  fruit  than 
it  hath  used  to  do,  it  is  not  anything  you  can  do  to  the 
boughs,  but  it  is  the  stirring  of  the  earth  and  putting 
new  mould  about  the  roots  that  must  work  it." 

Bacon  held  learning  to  be  conducive  to  religious 
faith.  "  It  is  an  assured  truth,"  he  says,  "  and  a  conclu- 
sion of  experience,  that  a  little  or  superficial  knowledge 
of  philosophy  may  incline  the  mind  of  man  to  atheism, 
but  a  further  proceeding  therein  doth  bring  the  mind 
back  again  to  religion ;  for,  in  the  entrance  of  philosophy, 
when  the  second  causes,  which  are  next  unto  the  senses, 
do  offer  themselves  unto  the  mind  of  man,  if  it  dwell 
and  stay  there,  it  may  induce  some  oblivion  of  the  high- 
est cause ;  but  when  a  man  passeth  on  farther,  and  seeth 


REACTION.  183 

the  dependence  of  causes  and  the  works  of  Providence, 
then,  according  to  the  allegory  of  the  poets,  he  will  easily 
believe  that  the  highest  link  of  Nature's  chain  must 
needs  be  tied  to  the  foot  of  Jupiter's  chair." 

Learning  should  inure  to  the  good  of  mankind. 
"  Men  have  entered  into  a  desire  of  learning  and  knowl- 
edge," Bacon  says,  "  sometimes  upon  a  natural  curiosity 
and  inquisitive  appetite,  sometimes  to  entertain  their 
minds  with  variety  and  delight,  sometimes  for  ornament 
and  reputation,  and  sometimes  to  enable  them  to  victory 
of  wit  and  contradiction — and,  most  times,  for  lucre  and 
profession ;  and  seldom  sincerely  to  give  a  true  account 
of  their  gift  of  reason,  to  the  benefit  and  use  of  man :  as 
if  there  were  sought  in  knowledge  a  couch,  whereupon 
to  rest  a  searching  and  restless  spirit,  or  a  terrace  for  a 
wandering  and  variable  mind  to  walk  up  and  down  with 
a  fair  prospect ;  or  a  tower  of  state,  for  a  proud  mind  to 
raise  itself  upon  ;  or  a  fort  or  commanding  ground,  for 
strife  and  contention ;  or  a  shop,  for  profit  or  sale ;  and 
not  a  rich  storehouse,  for  the  glory  of  the  Creator  and 
the  relief  of  man's  estate" 

Bacon  censured  a  priori  or  speculative  philosophy 
which  seeks  to  deduce  all  truth  from  the  inner  resources 
of  the  mind.  "  The  wit  and  mind  of  man,"  he  says,  "  if 
it  work  upon  matter,  which  is  the  contemplation  of  the 
creatures  of  God,  worketh  according  to  the  stuff,  and  is 
limited  thereby ;  but,  if  it  work  upon  itself,  as  the  spider 
worketh  his  web,  then  it  is  endless,  and  brings  forth  in- 
deed cobwebs  of  learning,  admirable  for  the  fineness  of 
thread  and  work,  but  of  no  substance  or  profit." 

"While  not  indifferent  to  graces  of  style,  Bacon  criti- 
cised the  excessive  humanistic  tendency  of  his  time. 


184:  FROM  THE  REFORMATION  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME. 

He  regarded  this  tendency  as  operative  in  bringing 
learning  into  discredit.  "  How  is  it  possible,"  he  asks, 
"  but  this  should  have  an  operation  to  discredit  learning, 
even  with  vulgar  capacities,  when  they  see  learned 
men's  works  like  the  first  letter  of  a  patent  or  limned 
book,  which,  though  it  hath  large  flourishes,  yet  it  is 
but  a  letter  ?  It  seems  to  me  that  Pygmalion's  frenzy 
is  a  good  emblem  or  portraiture  of  this  vanity,  for  words 
are  but  the  images  of  matter ;  and,  except  they  have  life 
of  reason  and  invention,  to  fall  in  love  with  them  is  all 
one  as  to  fall  in  love  with  a  picture."  * 

The  Novuin  Organum,  part  of  a  vast,  unfinished 
work  called  the  Instauratio  Magna,  was  published  in 
1620,  and  contains  the  principles  of  the  Baconian  or  in- 
ductive philosophy.  It  is  written  in  the  form  of  apho- 
risms, the  first  of  which  are  here  given  as  indicating  the 
character  of  the  whole  work  : 

"  I.  Man,  the  minister  and  interpreter  of  Nature,  can 
act  and  understand  in  as  far  as  he  has,  either  in  fact  or 
in  thought,  observed  the  order  of  Nature  ;  more  he  can 
neither  know  nor  do. 

"  II.  The  real  cause  and  root  of  almost  all  the  evils  in 
science  is  this,  that,  falsely  magnifying  and  extolling 
the  powers  of  the  mind,  we  seek  not  its  real  helps. 

"III.  There  are  two  ways  of  searching  after  and 
discovering  truth  :  the  one,  from  sense  and  particulars, 
rises  directly  to  the  most  general  axioms,  and  resting 
upon  these  principles,  and  their  unshaken  truth,  finds 
out  intermediate  axioms,  and  this  is  the  method  in  use ; 
but  the  other  raises  axioms  from  sense  and  particulars 

*  Pygmalion,  a  sculptor  of  the  island  of  Cyprus,  cherished  a  settled 
aversion  to  women,  but  fell  in  love  with  an  ivory  statue. 


REACTION.  185 

by  a  continued  and  gradual  ascent,  till  at  last  it  arrives 
at  the  most  general  axioms,  which  is  the  true  way,  but 
hitherto  untried." 

Investigation,  experiment,  verification,  these  are  char- 
acteristic features  of  the  Baconian  philosophy.  It  urges 
men  to  quit  barren,  transcendental  speculation  for  fruit- 
bearing  research  in  Nature.  It  is  intensely  practical ; 
it  has  made  Bacon  the  father  of  experimental  philoso- 
phy ;  it  has  been  potent  in  turning  modern  thought  into 
new  channels,  and  has  contributed  largely  to  the  scien- 
tific and  material  progress  of  the  present.  Bacon's  sig- 
nificance in  philosophy,  and,  it  might  be  added,  also  in 
education,  has  been  admirably  stated  by  Lewes :  "  It  was 
Bacon's  constant  endeavor,  as  it  has  been  the  cause  of 
his  enduring  fame,  to  teach  men  the  real  object  of  sci- 
ence, and  the  scope  of  their  faculties,  and  to  furnish 
them  with  a  proper  method  whereon  these  faculties 
might  be  successfully  employed.  He  thus  not  only 
Stands  out  clearly  in  history  as  the  exponent  of  the  long- 
agitated  antagonism  to  all  the  ancient  and  scholastic 
thinkers,  but  also  as  the  exponent  of  the  rapidly  increas- 
ing tendency  toward  positive  science.  He  is  essentially 
modern.  All  his  predecessors,  even  in  their  boldest  at- 
tacks upon  ancient  philosophy,  were  themselves  closely 
allied  to  the  spirit  of  that  which  they  opposed.  Kamus 
is  the  child  of  Aristotle,  though  he  raised  his  hand 
against  his  father ;  but  Bacon  was  modern  in  culture,  in 
object,  and  in  method." 

His  thoroughly  modern  spirit  is  shown  in  the  fol- 
lowing remarkable  passage,  the  truth  of  which,  after  a 
lapse  of  two  hundred  and  fifty  years,  is  rapidly  gaining 
recognition,  and  changing  the  character  of  our  educa- 


186      FROM  THE  REFORMATION  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME. 

tion :  "  The  opinion,"  he  says,  "  which  men  cherish  of 
antiquity  is  altogether  idle,  and  scarcely  accords  with 
the  term.  For  the  old  and  in  creasing  years  of  the  world 
should  in  reality  be  considered  antiquity,  and  this  is 
rather  the  character  of  our  own  times  than  of  the  less 
advanced  age  of  the  world  in  those  of  the  ancients.  For 
the  latter,  with  respect  to  ourselves,  are  ancient  and 
elder ;  with  respect  to  the  world,  modern  and  younger. 
And,  as  we  expect  a  greater  knowledge  of  human  affairs 
and  more  mature  judgment  from  an  old  man  than  from 
a  youth,  on  account  of  his  experience,  and  the  variety 
and  number  of  things  he  has  seen,  heard,  and  meditated 
upon,  so  we  have  reason  to  expect  much  greater  things 
of  our  own  age  (if  it  knew  but  its  strength  and  would 
essay  and  exert  it)  than  from  antiquity,  since  the  world 
has  grown  older,  and  its  stock  has  been  increased  and 
accumulated  with  an  infinite  number  of  experiments 
and  observations.  We  must  also  take  into  our  consider- 
ation that  many  objects  in  Nature  fit  to  throw  light 
upon  philosophy  have  been  exposed  to  our  view  and 
discovered  by  means  of  long  voyages  and  travels,  in 
which  our  times  have  abounded.  It  would,  indeed,  be 
dishonorable  to  mankind  if  the  regions  of  the  material 
globe,  the  earth,  the  sea,  and  stars,  should  be  so  pro- 
digiously developed  and  illustrated  in  our  age,  and  yet 
the  boundaries  of  the  intellectual  globe  should  be  con- 
fined to  the  narrow  discoveries  of  the  ancients."  This 
extract  is  one  of  the  aphorisms  of  the  Novum  Organum. 
"We  must  content  ourselves  with  but  one  more  pas- 
sage, though  Bacon's  works  are  a  rich  mine  of  educa- 
tional wisdom.  It  is  a  criticism  upon  the  principle  of 
authority  which  reigned  in  the  schools  of  the  time,  to 


REACTION.  187 

the  repression  of  free  and  fruitful  inquiry.  "In  the 
universities,"  he  says,  "  all  things  are  found  opposite  to 
the  advancement  of  the  sciences ;  for  the  readings  and 
exercises  are  here  so  managed  that  it  can  not  easily  come 
into  any  one's  mind  to  think  of  things  out  of  the  com- 
mon road :  or  if,  here  and  there,  one  should  venture  to 
use  a  liberty  of  judging,  he  can  only  impose  the  task 
upon  himself  without  obtaining  assistance  from  his  fel- 
lows ;  and,  if  he  could  dispense  with  this,  he  will  still 
find  his  industry  and  resolution  a  great  hindrance  to  his 
fortune.  For  the  studies  of  men  in  such  places  are 
confined,  and  pinned  down  to  the  writings  of  certain 
authors ;  from  which,  if  any  man  happens  to  differ,  he 
is  presently  reprehended  as  a  disturber  and  innovator." 

Bacon  had  an  unswerving  faith  in  the  power  of 
truth,  and  he  confidently  looked  forward  to  a  time  when 
his  philosophical  and  educational  reforms,  replete  with 
blessings  to  the  world,  would  be  approved  and  adopted. 
The  following  prediction,  whose  fulfillment  has  estab- 
lished the  character  and  mission  of  the  prophet,  is  sub- 
lime :  "  I  have  held  up  a  light  in  the  obscurity  of  phi- 
losophy," he  says,  "  which  will  be  seen  centuries  after  I 
am  dead.  It  will  be  seen  amid  the  erection  of  temples, 
tombs,  palaces,  theatres,  bridges,  making  noble  roads, 
cutting  canals,  granting  multitude  of  charters  and  liber- 
ties for  comfort  of  decayed  companies  and  corporations ; 
the  foundation  of  colleges  and  lectures  for  learning  and 
the  education  of  youth ;  foundations  and  institutions  of 
orders  and  fraternities  for  nobility,  enterprise,  and  obe- 
dience; but,  above  all,  the  establishing  good  laws  for 
the  regulation  of  the  kingdom,  and  as  an  example  to  the 
world" 


188      FROM  THE  REFORMATION  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME. 
(C.)   MILTON. 

John  Milton,  the  sublimest  poet  of  all  times,  was  born 
in  London,  in  1608.  The  highly  eulogistic  lines  of  Dry- 
den  hardly  surpass  the  truth : 

Three  poets,  in  three  distant  ages  born, 
Greece,  Italy,  and  England  did  adorn. 
The  first  in  loftiness  of  thought  surpassed ; 
The  next  in  majesty ;  in  both  the  last. 
The  force  of  Nature  could  no  further  go : 
To  make  a  third,  she  joined  the  other  two. 

His  father,  as  Milton  himself  tells  us,  was  a  man  of 
the  highest  integrity,  and  his  mother  a  woman  of  most 
virtuous  character,  especially  distinguished  for  her  neigh- 
borhood charities.  After  a  good  preliminary  training, 
Milton  was  sent  to  Cambridge,  where  he  made  diligent 
use  of  his  time.  In  the  following  interesting  passage, 
he  tells  us  something  of  his  studies,  and  the  dawning 
consciousness  of  his  greatness :  "  I  must  say  that,  after  I 
had,  for  my  first  years,  by  the  ceaseless  diligence  and 
care  of  my  father  (whom  God  recompense !),  been  exer- 
cised to  the  tongues,  and  some  science  as  my  age  would 
suffer,  by  sundry  masters  and  teachers,  both  at  home  and 
at  the  schools,  it  was  found  that,  whether  aught  was  -im- 
posed on  me  by  them  that  had  the  overlooking,  or  be- 
taken to  of  mine  own  choice,  in  English,  or  other  tongue, 
prosing  or  versing,  but  chiefly  the  latter,  the  style,  by 
certain  vital  signs  it  had,  was  likely  to  live.  But,  much 
latelier,  in  the  private  academies  of  Italy,  whither  I  was 
favored  to  resort,  perceiving  that  some  trifles  which  I 
had  composed  at  twenty,  or  thereabout,  .  .  .  met  with 
acceptance  above  what  was  looked  for ;  and  other  things, 


REACTION.  189 

which  I  had  shifted  (in  scarcity  of  books  and  con- 
veniences) to  patch  up  among  them,  were  received  with 
written  encomiums,  which  the  Italian  is  not  forward  to 
bestow  on  men  on  this  side  of  the  Alps — I  began  thus 
to  assent  both  to  them,  and  divers  of  my  friends  at 
home,  and  not  less  to  an  inward  prompting,  which  now 
grew  daily  upon  me,  that,  by  labor  and  intense  study 
(which  I  take  to  be  my  portion  in  this  life),  I  might, 
perhaps,  leave  something  so  written  to  after-times  as  they 
should  not  willingly  let  die." 

In  one  of  his  controversial  tracts,  replying  to  certain 
calumniations,  he  depicts  his  personal  habits  as  follows : 
"  Those  morning  haunts  are  where  they  should  be — at 
home ;  not  sleeping  or  concocting  the  surfeits  of  an  ir- 
regular feast,  but  up  and  stirring  in  winter,  often  ere  the 
sound  of  any  bell  awakens  men  to  labor  or  devotion ;  in 
summer,  as  oft  with  the  bird  that  first  rouses,  or  not 
much  tardier,  to  read  good  authors,  or  cause  them  to  be 
read,  till  the  attention  be  weary,  or  the  memory  have  its 
full  fraught.  Then,  with  useful  and  generous  labors, 
preserving  the  body's  health  and  hardiness,  to  render 
lightsome,  clear,  and  not  lumpish  obedience  to  the  mind, 
to  the  cause  of  religion  and  our  country's  liberty,  when 
it  shall  require  firm  hearts  in  sound  bodies,  to  stand  and 
cover  their  stations,  rather  than  see  the  ruin  of  our  Prot- 
estantism, and  the  enforcement  of  a  slavish  life." 

It  would  carry  us  beyond  our  limits  to  follow  the 
career  of  Milton  through  the  troublous  times  of  the 
Commonwealth,  and  the  dangers  and  sufferings  of  the 
Restoration;  to  speak  of  his  embittered  controversies 
and  domestic  trials ;  and  to  portray  him,  old  and  blind, 
in  the  elaboration  of  "Paradise  Lost,"  the  cherished 


190   FROM  THE  REFORMATION  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME. 

thought  of  a  lifetime.  Of  this  last  period,  in  a  poem 
on  his  own  blindness,  he  has  spoken  in  words  of  won- 
derful power  and  beauty : 

I  am  old  and  blind — 

Men  point  at  me  as  smitten  by  God's  frown, 
Afflicted  and  deserted  of  my  kind, 

Yet  I  am  not  cast  down. 

I  am  weak,  yet  strong ; 
I  murmur  not  that  I  no  longer  see ; 
Poor,  old,  and  helpless,  I  the  more  belong, 

Father  Supreme  !  to  thee. 

Oh !  I  seem  to  stand 

Trembling,  where  foot  of  mortal  ne'er  hath  been, 
Wrapped  in  the  radiance  of  thy  sinless  land, 

Which  eye  hath  never  seen. 

Yisions  come  and  go ; 

Shapes  of  resplendent  beauty  round  me  throng ; 
From  angel  lips  I  seem  to  hear  the  flow 

Of  soft  and  holy  song. 


Milton  belongs  to  the  educational  reformers.  In  a 
letter  to  Samuel  Hartlib,  he  has  presented  his  views 
upon  education  in  a  brief  but  comprehensive  form  ;  or, 
to  use  his  own  language,  he  has  "  set  down  in  writing 
.  .  .  that  voluntary  idea,  which  hath  long  in  silence 
presented  itself  to  me,  of  a  better  education,  in  extent 
and  comprehension  far  more  large,  and  yet  of  time  far 
shorter  and  of  attainment  far  more  certain,  than  hath 
been  yet  in  practice." 

His  definition  of  a  liberal  education  is  contained  in 
the  following  sentence :  "  I  call,  therefore,  a  complete 


REACTION.  191 

and  generous  education  that  which  fits  a  man  to  perform 
justly,  skillfully,  and  magnanimously  all  the  offices  both 
private  and  public,  of  peace  and  war." 

"  The  end,  then,  of  learning  is,"  he  says,  "  to  repair 
the  ruins  of  our  first  parents  by  regaining  to  know  God 
aright,  and  out  of  that  knowledge  to  love  him,  to  imi- 
tate him,  to  be  like  him,  as  we  may  the  nearest  by  pos- 
sessing our  souls  of  true  virtue,  which  being  united  to 
the  heavenly  grace  of  faith,  makes  up  the  highest  per- 
fection. But  because  our  understanding  can  not  in  this 
body  found  itself  but  on  sensible  things,  nor  arrive  so 
clearly  to  the  knowledge  of  God  and  things  invisible,  as 
by  orderly  conning  over  the  visible  and  inferior  creat- 
ure, the  same  method  is  necessarily  to  be  followed  in 
all  discreet  teaching.  And  seeing  every  nation  affords 
not  experience  and  tradition  enough  for  all  kinds  of 
learning,  therefore  we  are  chiefly  taught  the  languages 
of  those  people  who  have  at  any  time  been  most  in- 
dustrious after  wisdom ;  so  that  language  is  but  the  in- 
strument conveying  to  us  things  useful  to  be  known. 
And  though  a  linguist  should  pride  himself  to  have  all 
the  tongues  that  Babel  cleft  the  world  into,  yet  if  he 
have  not  studied  the  solid  things  in  them,  as  well  as  the 
words  and  lexicons,  he  were  nothing  so  much  to  be 
esteemed  a  learned  man  as  any  yeoman  or  tradesman 
competently  wise  in  his  mother  dialect  only."  In  the 
latter  part  of  this  admirable  passage,  Milton  emphasizes 
substantial  learning  as  contrasted  with  the  current,  well- 
nigh  empty  study  of  words,  which  he  elsewhere  charac- 
terizes as  "  pure  trifling  at  grammar  and  sophistry." 

In  the  same  connection,  he  protests  against  the  im- 
position of  tasks  beyond  the  strength  and  years  of  the 


192      FROM  THE  REFORMATION  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME. 

pupil.  "  We  do  amiss,"  lie  says,  "  to  spend  seven  or  eight 
years  merely  in  scraping  together  so  much  miserable 
Latin  and  Greek  as  might  be  learned  otherwise  easily 
and  delightfully  in  one  year.  And  that  which  casts  our 
proficiency  therein  so  much  behind  is  our  time  lost  partly 
in  too  oft  idle  vacancies  given  both  to  schools  and  uni- 
versities ;  partly  in  a  preposterous  exaction,  forcing  the 
empty  wits  of  children  to  compose  themes,  verses,  and 
orations,  which  are  the  acts  of  ripest  judgment,  and  the 
final  work  of  a  head  filled  by  long  reading  and  observ- 
ing with  elegant  maxims  and  copious  invention.  These 
are  not  matters  to  be  wrung  from  poor  striplings,  like 
blood  out  of  the  nose,  or  the  plucking  of  untimely  fruit ; 
besides  all  the  ill  habit  which  they  get  of  wretched  bar- 
barizing against  the  Latin  and  Greek  idiom,  with  their 
untutored  Anglicisms,  odious  to  be  read,  yet  not  to  be 
avoided  without  a  well-continued  and  judicious  convers- 
ing among  pure  authors,  digested,  which  they  scarce 
taste." 

In  the  following  extract  Milton  arraigns  the  meth- 
ods and  studies  pursued  at  the  universities,  and  shows 
the  unsatisfactory  results  for  the  cause  of  learning  and 
the  duties  of  active  life :  "  And  for  the  usual  method  of 
teaching  arts,  I  deem  it  to  be  an  old  error  of  universi- 
ties, not  yet  well  recovered  from  the  scholastic  grossness 
of  barbarous  ages,  that,  instead  of  beginning  with  arts 
most  easy '(and  those  be  such  as  are  most  obvious  to  the 
sense),  they  present  their  young,  unmatriculated  nov- 
ices, at  first  coming  with  the  most  intellective  abstrac- 
tions of  logic  and  metaphysics ;  so  that  they  having  but 
newly  left  those  grammatic  flats  and  shallows,  where 
they  stuck  unreasonably  long  to  learn  a  few  words  with 


REACTION.  193 

lamentable  construction,  and  now  on  the  sudden  trans- 
ported under  another  climate,  to  be  tossed  and  turmoiled 
with  their  unballasted  wits  in  fathomless  and  unquiet 
deeps  of  controversy,  do  for  the  most  part  grow  into  ha- 
tred and  contempt  of  learning,  mocked  and  deluded  all 
this  while  with  ragged  notions  and  babblements,  while 
they  expected  worthy  and  delightful  knowledge ;  till 
poverty  or  youthful  years  call  them  importunely  their 
several  ways,  and  hasten  them,  with  the  sway  of  friends, 
either  to  an  ambitious  and  mercenary,  or  ignorantly 
zealous  divinity:  some  allured  to  the  trade  of  law, 
grounding  their  purposes  not  on  the  prudent  and  heav- 
enly contemplation  of  justice  and  equity,  which  was 
never  taught  them,  but  on  the  promising  and  pleasing 
thoughts  of  litigious  terms,  fat  contentions,  and  flowing 
fees ;  others  betake  them  to  state  affairs,  with  souls  BO 
unprincipled  in  virtue  and  true  generous  breeding,  that 
flattery,  and  court-shifts,  and  tyrannous  aphorisms,  ap- 
pear to  them  the  highest  points  of  wisdom — instilling 
their  barren  hearts  with  a  conscientious  slavery,  if,  as  I 
rather  think,  it  be  not  feigned  ;  others,  lastly,  of  a  more 
delicious  and  airy  spirit,  retire  themselves,  knowing  no 
better,  to  the  enjoyments  of  ease  and  luxury,  living  out 
their  days  in  feast  and  jollity,  which  indeed  is  the  wisest 
and  safest  course  of  all  these,  unless  they  were  with 
more  integrity  undertaken.  And  these  are  the  errors, 
and  these  are  the  fruits  of  mis-spending  our  prime 
youth  at  the  schools  and  universities,  as  we  do,  either  in 
learning  mere  words,  or  such  things  chiefly  as  were  let- 
ter unlearnt" 

Having  thus  pointed  out  the  errors  common  in  the 
schools,  Milton  continues  in  the  following  beautiful  and 

9 


FROM  THE  REFORMATION  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME. 

oft-quoted  passage:  "I  shall  detain  you  no  longer  in 
the  demonstration  of  what  we  should  not  do,  but  straight 
conduct  you  to  a  hill-side,  where  I  will  point  you  out 
the  right  path  of  a  virtuous  and  noble  education ;  labo- 
rious, indeed,  at  the  first  ascent,  but  else  so  smooth,  so 
green,  so  full  of  goodly  prospect  and  melodious  sounds 
on  every  side,  that  the  harp  of  Orpheus  was  not  more 
charming." 

"We  will  not  follow  Milton  through  the  vast  scheme 
of  studies  which  he  proposed — a  scheme  that  included 
nearly  the  whole  range  of  literature  and  science.  "  His 
proposals  indeed,"  says  Quick,  "like  everything  con- 
nected with  him,  are  of  heroic  mold.  The  reader, 
especially  if  he  be  a  schoolmaster,  gasps  for  breath  at 
the  mere  enumeration  of  the  subjects  to  be  learned  and 
the  books  to  be  read."  Milton  himself  was  conscious  of 
the  vastness  of  his  plan,  and  he  concludes  his  "  Tractate  " 
to  Mr.  Hartlib  with  the  remark,  "  I  believe  that  this  is 
not  a  bow  for  every  man  to  shoot  in  that  counts  himself 
a  teacher,  but  will  require  sinews  almost  equal  to  those 
which  Homer  gave  Ulysses." 

(D.)  EATICH. 

Ratich  was  not,  like  Montaigne,  Bacon,  and  Milton, 
simply  an  enlightened  critic;  he  was  also  a  practical 
educator,  and  sought  to  remedy  existing  evils  by  the 
actual  introduction  of  reforms.  Though  he  erred  in 
the  application  of  his  principles,  and  his  efforts  resulted 
in  failure,  yet  he  has  the  honor  of  having  made  sub- 
stantial contributions  to  the  permanent  stock  of  peda- 
gogic truth.  He  laid  the  foundations  well,  but  failed  in 
rearing  the  superstructure. 


REACTION.  195 

Wolfgang  Ratich  was  born  at  "Wilster,  in  Holstein, 
1571.  He  received  his  classical  training  at  the  Ham- 
burg Gymnasium,  and  afterward  studied  theology  and 
philosophy  at  the  University  of  Rostock.  Compelled 
to  give  up  his  purpose  of  becoming  a  preacher  on  ac- 
count of  some  impediment  of  speech,  he  devoted  him- 
self to  the  study  of  Hebrew,  Arabic,  and  mathematics. 
He  spent  eight  years  at  Amsterdam,  where  he  elaborated 
his  educational  views,  and  offered  his  method  to  Prince 
Maurice,  of  Orange.  The  prince  wished  to  restrict  him 
to  the  teaching  of  Latin,  but,  unwilling  to  accept  this 
condition,  the  enthusiastic  reformer  carried  his  secret  to 
Basel  and  Strasburg,  as  well  as  to  several  courts,  in 
search  of  a  patron.  In  1612  he  addressed  a  memorial 
to  the  Electoral  Diet,  at  Frankfort,  in  which  he  prom- 
ised, with  divine  help,  to  show — 1.  How  young  and  old 
might  acquire,  in  short  time,  Hebrew,  Greek,  Latin,  and 
other  languages.  2.  How  a  school,  not  only  in  High 
German,  but  also  in  other  languages,  might  be  estab- 
lished, in  which  all  the  arts  and  sciences  might  be 
taught.  3.  How  in  the  whole  country  a  uniform  lan- 
guage, government,  and  religion  might  be  easily  intro- 
duced and  peaceably  maintained.  At  the  same  time 
he  attacked  the  current  education,  and  insisted  that  the 
young  should  learn  to  read,  write,  and  speak  their 
mother-tongue  correctly,  before  beginning  the  study  of 
other  languages. 

The  pretensions  of  this  memorial  were  by  no  means 
modest,  but  it  attracted  so  much  attention  that  a  com- 
mission of  learned  men  was  appointed  to  investigate 
Ratich's  claims.  His  views  were  reported  on  favorably. 
Helvicus,  a  celebrated  German  scholar  of  the  time,  ex- 


196   FROM  THE  REFORMATION  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME. 

pressed  himself  in  strong  terms.  "  "We  are,"  he  says, 
in  his  report,  "  in  bondage  to  Latin.  The  Greeks  and 
Saracens  would  never  have  done  so  much  for  posterity 
if  they  had  spent  their  youth  in  acquiring  a  foreign 
tongue.  We  must  study  our  own  language,  and  then 
the  sciences.  Ratich  has  discovered  the  art  of  teaching 
according  to  nature.  By  this  method  languages  will  be 
quickly  learned,  so  that  we  shall  have  time  for  science  ; 
and  science  will  be  learned  even  better  still,  as  the  nat- 
ural system  suits  best  with  science,  which  is  the  study  of 
Nature." 

Finally,  after  repeated  failures,  Hatich  succeeded  in 
getting  Prince  Ludwig,  of  Anhalt-Kothen,  interested  in 
his  scheme,  and  in  1619  received  at  the  hands  of  the 
prince  every  facility  for  opening  a  model  school ;  in  re- 
turn for  which  he  made  extravagant  promises.  A  print- 
ing-house, provided  with  type  in  six  different  languages, 
was  opened  for  the  publication  of  text-books ;  and  a 
number  of  teachers  were  set  apart  to  receive  a  special 
drill  in  the  new  methods.  It  was  given  out  that  He- 
brew, Greek,  and  Latin  would  be  learned  in  less  than 
half  the  time  required  in  other  parts  of  Germany,  and 
besides  with  much  less  trouble. 

The  inhabitants  of  Kothen  responded  readily  to -the 
appeal  for  pupils,  and  a  school  was  opened  with  two 
hundred  and  thirty-one  boys  and  two  hundred  and  two 
girls.  It  was  divided  into  six  grades.  In  the  three 
lowest  only  the  mother-tongue  was  to  be  used ;  in  the 
fourth  Latin  was  taken  up,  and  in  the  sixth  Greek. 
Besides  language,  arithmetic,  singing,  and  religion  were 
taught.  The  teacher  of  the  lowest  grade  was  to  be  an 
affable  man,  who,  as  stated  in  the  plan,  should  "  form 


REACTION.  197 

the  speech  of  these  young  pupils  by  daily  prayer,  short 
biblical  proverbs,  and  easy  conversations ;  and  correct  by 
constant  practice  the  faults  acquired  out  of  school." 

In  teaching  the  mother-tongue,  Ratich  began  with 
the  letters  of  the  alphabet,  which  he  regarded  as  the 
simplest  element  of  grammar.  As  he  drew  each  letter 
slowly  on  the  blackboard,  he  directed  attention  to  its 
form  and  name ;  and,  in  order  to  deepen  the  impression, 
he  compared  its  shape  with  other  objects  (as  o  with  a 
ring),  and  required  the  pupil  to  make  it  himself.  The 
next  step  was  in  forming  syllables  and  words,  which 
were  likewise  to  be  written  and  pronounced.  The  tran- 
sition to  reading  was  made  without  delay,  and  in  a  novel 
manner.  The  teacher  took  some  easy  and  interesting 
book  like  Genesis,  and  read  it  through  before  the  class, 
going  over  each  chapter  twice,  and  requiring  the  pupils 
to  follow  with  eye  and  finger.  Then,  turning  again  to 
the  beginning,  he  read  over  the  first  chapter;  after 
which  the  pupils  were  permitted  to  read,  each  one  pro- 
nouncing four  lines.  Reading  having  been  learned  in 
this  way,  the  study  of  grammar  was  begun.  The  teacher 
first  read  and  explained  some  section  of  the  grammar, 
for  example,  that  treating  of  nouns ;  then  the  pupils 
read  the  same  one  or  more  times ;  after  which  they  took 
up  the  book  previously  used  in  reading,  and  with  the 
aid  of  the  teacher  pointed  out  the  substantives.  In  this 
way  all  the  principles  of  grammar  were  exemplified. 

In  Latin,  as  in  the  mother-tongue,  grammar  followed 
reading.  Terence  was  the  favorite  author  for  beginners. 
A  translation  of  some  one  of  his  plays  was  first  placed 
in  the  pupil's  hands.  "  The  master  then,"  to  use  Quick's 
convenient  condensation  of  the  tedious  German  account, 


198      FROM  THE  REFORMATION  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME. 

"translated  the  play  to  them,  each  half-hour's  work 
twice  over.  At  the  next  reading  the  master  translated 
the  first  half-hour,  and  the  boys  translated  the  same 
piece  the  second.  Having  thus  got  through  the  play, 
they  began  again,  and  only  the  boys  translated.  After 
this  there  was  a  course  of  grammar,  which  was  applied 
to  the  Terence,  as  the  grammar  of  the  mother-tongue 
had  been  to  Genesis.  Finally,  the  pupils  were  put 
through  a  course  of  exercises,  in  which  they  had  to  turn 
into  Latin  sentences  imitated  from  the  Terence,  and 
differing  from  the  original  only  in  the  number  or  per- 
son used." 

The  school  at  Kothen  did  not  have  the  success  that 
these  methods  would  seem  to  assure ;  on  the  contrary,  it 
turned  out  a  complete  failure.  Several  external  causes 
concurred  in  bringing  this  about.  Ratich  displeased  his 
patrons,  who  were  all  Calvinistic,  by  his  uncompromis- 
ing Lutheranism ;  he  offended  his  colleagues  and  sup- 
porters by  his  arrogance,  and  he  provoked  unfriendly 
criticism.  His  school  was  soon  in  disorder.  And,  hav- 
ing fallen  into  a  quarrel  with  the  prince,  he  was  thrown 
into  prison,  from  which  he  obtained  his  release  only 
upon  signing  a  declaration  that  "  he  had  claimed  and 
promised  more  than  he  knew  or  could  bring  to  pass." 

After  his  failure  and  humiliation  at  Kothen,  Ratich 
endeavored  for  many  years  to  establish  his  system  else- 
where ;  but,  during  the  commotions  of  the  Thirty  Years' 
"War,  he  was  able  to  accomplish  but  little.  His  theories, 
however,  are  not  to  be  judged  by  his  failure  as  a  teacher. 
Many  of  his  educational  principles  are  excellent ;  and, 
though  he  failed  in  the  attempt  to  apply  them,  they 
have  survived,  and  enter  into  the  education  of  the 


REACTION.  199 

present.      His  chief  educational  maxims  are  the  fol- 
lowing: 

1.  Everything  after  the  order  or  course  of  nature. 
All  teaching  that  is  forced,  violent,  or  contrary  to  na- 
ture, is  harmful. 

2.  Teach  only  one  thing  at  a  time.    There  is  nothing 
that  hinders  the  understanding  more  than  the  attempt 
to  learn  many  things  at  once. 

3.  Often  repeat  the  same  thing.    It  thus  sinks  deeply 
into  the  understanding. 

4.  Everything  first  in  the  mother-tongue.     The  pu- 
pil's attention  is  thus  fixed  only  upon  what  he  has  to 
learn,  and  not  upon  the  medium  through  which  he 
learns  it. 

5.  Everything  without  compulsion.     Compulsion  is 
against  nature,  and  also  renders  studies  hateful  to  the 
young. 

6.  Nothing  should  be  learned  by  rote.    This  is  hurt- 
ful to  the  understanding. 

7.  There  should  be  uniformity  in  all  things,  in  meth- 
ods of  teaching,  as  well  as  in  the  form  of  text-books. 

8.  First  the  thing  itself,  then  the  manner  of  the 
thing.    Rules  without  matter  confuse  the  understanding. 

9.  Teach  everything  by  experiment  and  analysis. 
Nothing  should  be  received  on  mere  authority ;  the  rea- 
son and  evidence  should  be  examined  and  apprehended. 

These  principles,  though  liable  to  abuse,  are  a  valu- 
able contribution  to  pedagogy.  They  show  the  peda- 
gogical insight  of  Ratich,  and  establish  his  claim  to  an 
honorable  place  among  educational  reformers.  The  na- 
ture of  his  work  has  been  thus  summed  up  by  Paroz : 
"  Ratich,  as  we  have  just  seen,  is  dissatisfied  with  the 


200      FROM  THE  REFORMATION  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME. 

past,  and  commences  in  Germany  the  reaction  against 
the  defective  system  of  study  inaugurated  and  perfected 
by  men  like  Luther,  Trotzendorf,  Sturm,  and  the  Jesu- 
its—  a  system  whose  base,  middle,  and  summit  was 
Latin,  a  servile  imitation  of  Cicero.  His  attempts  were 
unskillful,  and  his  principles  commonly  exaggerated. 
It  is  not  astonishing,  therefore,  that  he  succumbed  in 
an  undertaking  above  his  strength,  and  when  he  had  the 
age  against  him,  instead  of  for  him,  as  the  men  whom  I 
have  just  named.  Nevertheless,  he  has  brought  out, 
like  Montaigne,  a  truth  which  no  force  will  henceforth 
be  able  to  overthrow,  namely,  that  the  old  methods — if 
we  may  so  call  an  empirical  instruction  based  on  memory 
and  imitation — are  defective,  and  that  it  has  become 
necessary  to  reform  our  instruction  by  methods  based 
on  nature,  and  by  the  adoption  of  new  subjects,  such, 
for  example,  as  the  mother-tongue." 

(E.)  COMENITJS. 

The  most  celebrated  educational  reformer  of  the 
seventeenth  century  was  John  Amos  Comenius.  He 
was  born  in  Moravia,  March  28,  1592.  His  family  be- 
longed to  that  body  of  Protestants  known  as  Moravian 
Brethren.  Though  few  in  number,  this  body  has  al- 
ways been  distinguished  for  simplicity  of  faith,  earnest 
piety,  and  missionary  zeal.  These  characteristics  were 
early  developed  in  Comenius,  and  they  imparted  to  his 
long  life  of  labor  and  trial  peculiar  beauty. 

As  with  many  other  illustrious  men,  little  is  known 
of  his  early  years.  When  quite  young  he  lost  his  par- 
ents, and  was  brought  up  under  the  care  of  guardians. 
He  received  the  limited  instruction  in  reading,  writing, 


REACTION.  201 

arithmetic,  and  the  catechism  imparted  in  the  primary 
schools  of  the  time.  It  was  not  till  the  age  of  sixteen 
that  he  began  the  study  of  Latin,  then  the  staple  of 
learning.  "Yet,  by  the  goodness  of  God,"  he  says, 
"  that  taste  bred  such  a  thirst  in  me  that  I  ceased  not 
from  that  time,  by  all  means  and  endeavors,  to  labor  for 
the  repairing  of  my  lost  years." 

It  was,  perhaps,  a  fortunate  circumstance  that  he  en- 
tered upon  the  study  of  Latin  so  late.  He  was  better 
able  to  judge  of  the  methods  and  discipline  to  which  he 
had  to  conform.  He  recognized  many  of  the  prevalent 
errors,  and  busied  his  youthful  fancy  in  devising  im- 
provements. He  thus  portrays  the  schools  of  his  time : 
"  They  are  the  terror  of  boys,  and  the  slaughter-houses 
of  minds — places  where  a  hatred  of  literature  and  books 
is  contracted,  where  ten  or  more  years  are  spent  in  learn- 
ing what  might  be  acquired  in  one,  where  what  ought 
to  be  poured  in  gently  is  violently  forced  in  and  beaten 
in,  where  what  ought  to  be  put  clearly  and  perspicu- 
ously is  presented  in  a  confused  and  intricate  way,  as  if 
it  were  a  collection  of  puzzles — places  where  minds  are 
fed  on  words." 

Comenius  completed  his  studies  at  the  College  of 
Herborn  and  the  University  of  Heidelberg.  In  1616 
he  was  ordained  to  the  ministry  in  the  Moravian  Church, 
and  was  placed  over  the  congregation  in  Fulneck. 
Along  with  his  pastoral  duties,  he  had  charge  of  a  re- 
cently established  school,  and  began  to  consider  more 
fully  the  subject  of  education.  Here  he  married,  and 
for  two  or  three  years  he  led  an  active  and  happy  life — 
the  only  period  of  tranquillity  he  was  ever  to  enjoy  in 
his  native  country.  The  Thirty  Years'  War  broke  out, 


202      FROM  THE  REFORMATION  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME. 

and  made  troublous  times.  In  1621  Fulneck  was  taken 
by  the  Spaniards,  and  Comenius  lost  all  his  property. 
Instigated  by  the  Jesuits,  the  Austrian  Government  pro- 
scribed the  evangelical  pastors,  and  forced  them  to  fly. 
Comenius  took  refuge  for  a  time  in  his  native  mount- 
ains, but,  as  the  persecution  waxed  hotter,  he  fled  to 
Lissa,  in  Poland.  On  crossing  the  border,  he  devoutly 
knelt  and  prayed  God  that  the  truth  might  not  be 
quenched  in  his  native  land. 

At  Lissa  he  found  employment  in  the  Moravian 
Gymnasium,  of  which  he  seems  to  have  become  rector. 
He  applied  himself  with  new  ardor  to  his  educational 
studies.  He  acquainted  himself  with  the  best  educa- 
tional writings  of  the  age,  perusing  among  others  the 
works  of  Katich  and  Bacon.  He  was  greatly  impressed 
by  them.  "  Yet,"  he  says,  "  observing  here  and  there 
some  defects  and  gaps  as  it  were,  I  could  not  restrain 
myself  from  attempting  something  that  might  rest  upon 
an  immovable  foundation,  and  which,  if  it  could  be 
found  out,  should  not  be  subject  to  any  ruin.  There- 
fore, after  many  workings  and  tossings  of  my  thoughts, 
by  reducing  everything  to  the  immovable  law  of  Nature, 
I  lighted  upon  my  Didactica  Magna,  which  shows  the 
art  of  readily  and  solidly  teaching  all  men  all  things." 
In  this  work,  which  was  not  published  for  several  years, 
Comenius  made  a  comprehensive  and  profound  study  of 
education,  and  announced  those  principles  which  were 
destined  to  transform  the  schools  of  all  Christian  lands. 

He  next  set  about  reforming  the  methods  of  teach- 
ing Latin.  Too  much  time  was  given  to  words.  "  If 
so  much  time  is  to  be  spent  on  the  language  alone,"  he 
says,  "when  is  the  boy  to  know  about  things — when 


REACTION.  203 

will  he  learn  philosophy,  when  religion,  and  so  forth  ? 
He  will  consume  his  life  in  preparing  for  life."  To 
remedy  this  evil,  he  prepared  his  "Gate  of  Tongues 
Unlocked"  (Janua  Linguarum,  Reseratab),  the  charac- 
ter of  which  he  fully  sets  forth  in  the  following  extract : 
"  My  fundamental  principle — an  irrefragable  law  of  di- 
dactics— is  that  the  understanding  and  the  tongue  should 
advance  in  parallel  lines  always.  The  human  being 
tends  to  utter  what  he  apprehends.  If  he  does  not  ap- 
prehend the  word  he  uses,  he  is  a  parrot ;  if  he  appre- 
hends without  words,  he  is  a  dumb  statue.  Accordingly, 
under  one  hundred  heads,  I  have  classified  the  whole 
universe  of  things  in  a  manner  suited  to  the  capacity  of 
boys,  and  I  have  given  the  corresponding  language.  I 
have  selected  from  lexicons  the  words  that  had  to  be  in- 
troduced, and  I  include  eight  thousand  vocables  in  one 
thousand  sentences,  which  are  at  first  simple,  and  there- 
after gradually  become  complex.  I  have  used  words,  as 
far  as  practicable,  in  their  primary  signification,  accord- 
ing to  the  comprehension  of  the  young,  but  have  had  to 
seek  for  modern  Latin  words  where  pure  Latin  was  not 
to  be  had.  I  have  used  the  same  word  only  once,  except 
where  it  had  two  meanings.  Synonyms  and  contraries 
I  have  placed  together,  so  that  they  may  throw  light 
upon  one  another.  I  have  arranged  the  words  so  as  to 
bring  into  view  concords  and  governments  and  declen- 
sion." 

As  this  passage  shows,  the  "  Gate  of  Tongues  "  pos- 
sessed several  great  merits.  It  was  suited  to  the  pupil's 
capacity ;  it  carried  him  along  by  easy  gradations ;  and, 
above  all,  it  taught  him  things  in  connection  with  words. 
Its  success  was  instantaneous  and  immense.  It  was 


204      *"ROM  THE  REFORMATION  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME. 

translated  into  Greek,  Bohemian,  Polish,  German,  Swed- 
ish, Belgian,  English,  French,  Spanish,  Italian,  Hunga- 
rian, Turkish,  Arabic,  and  one  of  the  languages  of  India. 

It  is  now  time  to  speak  of  a  scheme  to  which  Co- 
menius  long  gave  affectionate  thought  and  zealous  labor. 
Its  realization  he  believed  for  many  years  was  to  consti- 
tute his  principal  life-work.  This  scheme,  suggested  to 
him  by  Bacon,  was  the  publication  of  a  work  that  would 
embrace  and  fully  exhibit  the  whole  circle  of  knowl- 
edge. This  vast  undertaking,  which  Comenius  believed 
would  be  very  helpful  to  the  advancement  of  science, 
was  obviously  beyond  the  powers  of  any  one  man. 
Hence  his  practical  mind  suggested  the  establishment 
of  an  institution,  in  which  all  departments  of  learning 
should  be  represented  by  the  ablest  scholars,  and  from 
which  this  encyclopaedia  of  knowledge  was  to  proceed. 

It  was  in  relation  to  this  great  pansophic  scheme 
that  Comenius  was  invited  by  the  English  Parliament  to 
London.  He  went  there  in  1641,  and  promising  meas- 
ures were  taken  to  open  a  "  universal  college."  "  But," 
as  he  tells  us  in  his  own  account  of  the  visit,  "  a  rumor 
that  Ireland  was  in  a  state  of  commotion,  and  that  more 
than  two  hundred  thousand  of  the  English  had  been 
slaughtered  there  in  one  night,  the  sudden  departure  of 
the  king  from  London,  and  the  clear  indications  that  a 
most  cniel  war  was  on  the  point  of  breaking  out,  threw 
all  our  plans  into  confusion,  and  compelled  me  and  my 
friends  to  hasten  our  return." 

At  this  juncture  Comenius  was  invited  to  Sweden. 
He  was  kindly  received  at  Stockholm  by  the  illustrious 
statesman,  Oxenstiern,  and  Chancellor  Skyte,  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Upsala.  His  didactic  and  pansophic  schemes 


REACTION.  205 

were  fully  discussed.  "  For  four  days,"  he  says,  "  these 
two  men  held  me  in  debate,  but  chiefly  Oxenstiern,  that 
eagle  of  the  North,  who  questioned  me  as  to  my  princi- 
ples, both  pansophic  and  didactic,  with  a  greater  pene- 
tration and  closeness  than  had  been  exhibited  by  any  of 
the  learned  with  whom  I  had  come  in  contact.  For  the 
first  three  days  didactic  was  the  subject  of  his  examina- 
tion, and  he  brought  the  interviews  to  an  end  with  the 
following  remarks :  '  From  youth  up  I  have  perceived 
a  certain  violence  in  the  customary  method  of  school 
studies,  but  I  could  never  put  my  finger  on  the  place 
where  the  shoe  pinched.  When  sent  by  my  king,  of 
glorious  memory,*  as  an  embassador  to  Germany,  I  con- 
ferred with  many  learned  men  on  the  subject ;  and  when 
I  was  informed  that  Wolfgang  Ratich  had  attempted  a 
reform  of  method,  I  had  no  peace  of  mind  till  I  had  the 
man  before  me ;  but  he,  instead  of  a  conversation,  pre- 
sented me  with  a  huge  book  in  quarto.  I  swallowed 
that  annoyance,  and,  having  run  through  the  whole  vol- 
ume, I  saw  that  he  had  exposed  the  diseases  of  the 
schools  not  badly ;  but,  as  for  the  remedies,  they  did  not 
seem  to  me  to  be  adequate.  Your  remedies  rest  on 
firmer  foundations ;  go  on  with  your  work.' " 

The  pansophic  plans  of  Comenius  were  not  encour- 
aged by  Oxenstiern ;  and,  as  a  result  of  this  conference, 
he  was  induced  to  prepare  a  work  in  which  his  princi- 
ples should  be  carefully  wrought  out  in  reference  to 
teaching  languages.  For  this  purpose,  he  took  up  his 
residence  at  Elbing,  in  Prussia,  where  he  was  supported 
by  De  Geer,  a  wealthy  and  intelligent  Dutchman.  Here, 
after  four  years  of  labor,  he  produced  his  "  Latest 

*  Gustavus  Adolphus. 


206      FROM  THE  REFORMATION  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME. 

Method  with  Languages "  (Methodus  Linguarum  No- 
vissima).  In  this  work  he  points  out  three  evils  in  the 
current  teaching  of  Latin:  1.  That  words  are  taught 
without  being  understood ;  2.  That  boys  are  introduced 
at  once  into  the  intricacies  of  grammar;  and,  3.  That 
they  are  required  to  make  impossible  leaps,  being  forced 
prematurely  into  works  above  their  comprehension.  In 
this  connection,  he  laid  down  the  important  principles 
that  words  and  things  should  be  learned  together ;  that 
theory  should  not  be  dissevered  from  practice,  and  that 
study  should  advance  by  easy  gradations. 

No  sooner  had  Comenius  accomplished  the  work  as- 
signed him  by  his  Swedish  advisers,  than  he  received  a 
call  to  reform  the  schools  of  Transylvania,  in  Hungary. 
Accordingly,  he  went,  in  1650,  to  the  town  of  Patak, 
where  he  established  a  model  school.  This  he  designed, 
under  the  patronage  of  wealthy  friends,  to  develop  into 
a  pansophic  institution ;  but  it  appears  that  he  never  or- 
ganized more  than  the  lower  classes. 

He  remained  at  Patak  four  years,  which  were  char- 
acterized by  surprising  literary  activity.  During  this 
short  period  he  produced  no  less  than  fifteen  different 
works,  among  them  his  ""World  Illustrated"  (Orbis 
Pictus),  the  most  famous  of  all  his  writings.  This  work 
contained,  as  stated  in  the  title-page,  "  the  pictures  and 
names  of  all  the  principal  things  in  the  world,  and  of  all 
the  principal  occupations  of  man."  It  admirably  applied 
the  principle  that  words  and  things  should  be  learned 
together.  It  contained  not  only  a  simple  treatment  of 
things  in  general,  but  also  pictures  to  illustrate  the  sub- 
ject of  each  lesson.  The  philosophic  basis  of  the  work 
is  presented  by  Comenius  in  the  following  extract: 


REACTION.  207 

"  The  foundation  of  all  learning  consists  in  representing 
clearly  to  the  senses  sensible  objects,  so  that  they  can  be 
apprehended  easily.  I  maintain  that  this  is  the  basis  of 
all  other  actions,  inasmuch  as  we  could  neither  act  nor 
speak  wisely  unless  we  comprehended  clearly  what  we 
wished  to  say  or  do.  For  it  is  certain  that  there  is  noth- 
ing in  the  understanding  which  has  not  been  previously 
in  the  sense ;  and  consequently,  to  exercise  the  senses 
carefully  in  discriminating  the  differences  of  natural  ob- 
jects, is  to  lay  the  foundation  of  all  wisdom,  all  eloquence, 
and  all  good  and  prudent  action."  The  "  "World  Illus- 
trated "  had  an  enormous  circulation,  and  remained  for 
a  long  time  the  most  popular  text-book  in  Europe. 

In  1654  Comenius  returned  to  his  former  home  at 
Lissa.  Here  one  more  misfortune  awaited  him  before 
the  close  of  his  eventful  career.  When  that  town  was 
plundered  by  the  Poles,  in  1656,  Comenius  lost  his 
house,  books,  and,  above  all,  his  manuscripts,  which  em- 
bodied the  labors  of  many  years.  "  This  loss,"  he  said, 
"  I  shall  cease  to  lament  only  when  I  cease  to  breathe." 
After  several  months'  wandering  in  Germany,  he  was 
offered  an  asylum  in  Amsterdam  by  Laurence  de  Geer, 
the  son  of  his  former  patron.  Here,  in  comparative 
ease,  he  spent  the  remaining  years  of  his  life,  devoting 
himself  to  teaching  as  a  means  of  support,  and  to  the 
promulgation  and  defense  of  his  educational  views. 
Through  the  liberality  of  friends,  he  was  enabled  to 
publish  a  complete  edition  of  his  works.  His  last  days 
were  somewhat  imbittered  by  envious  attacks  upon  his 
character  and  methods,  but  in  all  his  trials  he  exhibited 
a  meek,  forbearing,  Christian  spirit.  He  died  in  1671, 
at  the  advanced  age  of  eighty  years. 


208      FROM  THE  REFORMATION  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME. 

"  Comenius,"  says  Raumer,  "is  a  grand  and  venerable 
figure  of  sorrow.  Wandering,  persecuted,  and  home- 
less, during  the  terrible  and  desolating  Thirty  Years' 
War,  he  yet  never  despaired,  but  with  enduring  truth, 
and  strong  in  faith,  he  labored  unweariedly  to  prepare 
youth  by  a  better  education  for  a  better  future.  Sus- 
pended from  the  ministry,  as  he  himself  tells  us,  and  an 
exile,  he  had  become  an  apostle  to  the  Christian  youth ; 
and  certainly  he  labored  for  them  with  a  zeal  and  love 
worthy  of  the  chief  of  the  apostles." 

Such,  in  imperfect  outline,  was  the  life  of  this  great 
man.  But,  in  order  to  appreciate  him  fully,  we  must 
turn  for  a  moment  to  the  consideration  of  his  educational 
principles.  Unlike  many  of  his  predecessors,  he  did  not 
confine  himself  to  the  enunciation  of  isolated  principles. 
He  sought  first  of  all  an  immovable  foundation,  and  on 
this  he  erected  his  system  with  close  logical  sequence. 
His  reforms  were  as  thorough  as  they  were  comprehen- 
sive. He  conceived  of  education  as  a  development  of 
man  in  all  his  faculties ;  he  based  all  his  methods  on  the 
order  of  nature;  he  regarded  the  perfect  man  as  the 
end  of  all  culture.  "  The  right  instruction  of  youth," 
he  says,  "does  not  consist  in  cramming  them  with  a 
mass  of  words,  phrases,  sentences,  and  opinions  collected 
from  authors,  but  in  unfolding  the  understanding  that 
many  little  streams  may  flow  therefrom  as  from  a  living 
fountain.  Hitherto  the  schools  have  not  labored  that 
the  children  might  unfold  like  the  young  tree  from  the 
impulse  of  its  own  roots,  but  have  been  contented  when 
they  covered  themselves  with  foreign  branches.  Thus 
they  have  taught  the  youth,  after  the  manner  of  ^Esop's 
crow,  to  adorn  themselves  with  strange  feathers.  Why 


REACTION.  209 

shall  we  not,  instead  of  dead  books,  open  the  living  book 
of  Nature  ?  Not  the  shadows  of  things,  but  the  things 
themselves,  which  make  an  impression  on  the  senses  and 
the  imagination,  are  to  be  brought  before  youth.  By 
actual  observation,  not  by  a  verbal  description  of  things, 
must  instruction  begin.  From  such  observation  devel- 
ops a  certain  knowledge.  Men  must  be  led  as  far  as 
possible  to  draw  their  wisdom  not  from  books,  but  from 
a  consideration  of  heaven  and  earth,  oaks  and  beeches ; 
that  is,  they  must  know  and  examine  things  themselves, 
and  not  simply  be  contented  with  the  observations  and 
testimony  of  others."  This  brief  extract  contains  the 
two  fundamental  truths  upon  which  all  correct  educa- 
tion must  rest. 

The  following  principles,  gleaned  from  the  works  of 
Comenius,  will  exhibit  his  greatness  as  an  educational 
reformer,  and  also  the  extent  to  which  the  improved 
education  of  the  present  is  indebted  to  him : 

1.  Education    is    a    development    of    the    whole 
man. 

2.  Educational  methods  should  follow  the  order  of 
Nature. 

3.  Both  sexes  should  receive  equal  instruction,  since 
the  end  of  education  is  individual  development. 

4.  Learning  should  be  made  agreeable.     Teachers 
should  always  have  something  interesting  and  profitable 
to  communicate  to  their  classes.     School-houses  should 
be  made  comfortable  and  attractive. 

5.  If  the  superstructure  is  not  to  totter,  the  founda- 
tion must  be  laid  well. 

6.  Many  studies  are  to  be  avoided  as  dissipating  the 
mental  strength. 


210      FROM  THE  REFORMATION  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME. 

7.  There  should  be  an  easy  gradation  in  studies,  the 
one  leading  naturally  to  the  other. 

8.  Things  naturally  connected  in  themselves  should 
be  joined  together  in  teaching. 

9.  Nothing  should  be  taught  that  is  not  of  solid 
utility. 

10.  Studies  should  be  adapted  to  the  capacity  of  the 
pupil. 

11.  Nothing  is  to  be  learned  by  heart  that  is  not 
first  thoroughly  understood. 

12.  Let  nothing  that  admits  of  sensible  or  rational 
demonstration  be  taught  by  authority. 

13.  Let  no  task  be  assigned  until  the  method  of  doing 
it  has  been  explained. 

14.  In  the  sciences  the  student  should  have  the  ob- 
jects studied  before  him. 

15.  In  languages  the  mother-tongue  is  to  come  first, 
next  the  languages  of  neighboring  nations,  then  Latin  as 
the  language  of  the  learned  world.     Theologians  and 
physicians  should  study  Greek. 

16.  Languages  are  to  be  learned  by  practice  rather 
than  by  rule.     Rules  should  follow  and  confirm  prac- 
tice. 

17.  "Words  should  be  learned  in  connection  with 
things.     The  object  first,  then  the  expression. 

18.  The  concrete  should  precede  the  abstract ;  the 
simple,  the  complex ;  the  nearer,  the  more  remote. 

19.  Things  to  be  done  should  be  learned  by  doing 
them.     "  Mechanics,"  Comenius  says,  "  understand  this 
well ;  they  do  not  give  the  apprentice  a  lecture  upon 
their  trade,  but  they  let  him  see  how  they  as  masters 
do ;  then  they  place  the  tool  in  his  hands,  teach  him  to 


REACTION.  211 

use  it,  and  imitate  them.  Doing  can  be  learned  only 
by  doing,  writing  by  writing,  painting  by  painting,  and 
so  on." 

20.  Religion  is  of  supreme  importance ;  and,  in  ad- 
dition to  religious  instruction,  the  young  should  be  ac- 
customed to  the  exercise  of  Christian  virtues,  such  as 
temperance,  justice,  compassion,  patience,  and  so  on. 

21.  Discipline  should  aim  at  improving  the  char- 
acter. 

22.  The  teacher  should  be  an  example,  in  person  and 
conduct,  of  what  he  requires  of  his  pupils. 

Of  these  principles,  the  first  two  are  fundamental. 
Nearly  all  of  them  were  directly  opposed  to  the  practice 
of  the  seventeenth  century ;  many  of  them  are  now  re- 
garded as  axiomatic  truths,  and  are  rapidly  reforming 
and  elevating  the  schools  of  Christendom.  They  entitle 
Comenius  to  rank  among  the  world's  greatest  educa- 
tional reformers. 

The  school  system  proposed  by  Comenius  is  not  un. 
worthy  of  mention.  It  embraced  four  grades  of  schools. 
The  first  was  the  domestic  school,  in  which  the  child 
was  to  learn  the  use  of  its  senses,  acquire  its  native  lan- 
guage, and  gain  a  rudimentary  knowledge  of  things  in 
general.  The  next  was  the  vernacular,  or  popular  school. 
This  the  child  attended  from  the  age  of  six  to  twelve, 
and  studied  reading,  writing,  arithmetic,  singing,  the 
catechism,  history,  and  geography.  Then  followed  the 
Latin  school,  in  which  the  young  student  devoted  six 
years  to  grammar,  physics,  mathematics,  ethics,  logic, 
and  rhetoric.  Lastly,  the  university,  as  the  home  of  all 
branches  of  learning,  formed  the  natural  completion  of 
the  system. 


212      FROM  THE  REFORMATION  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME. 

"We  close  this  sketch  of  the  life  and  educational 
principles  of  Comenius  with  an  extract  from  his  last 
work,  written  when  he  had  attained  the  advanced  age 
of  seventy-seven.  It  shows  us  the  great,  unselfish  spirit 
that  animated  him  in  his  labors,  and  sustained  him  in 
his  trials :  "  I  thank  my  God,"  he  says,  "  who  has  willed 
that  I  should  be  my  life  long  a  man  of  aspiration.  For 
aspiration  after  the  good,  whatever  may  be  its  form  in 
the  heart,  is  a  stream  that  flows  from  the  source  of  all 
good — from  God.  I  have  said  that  I  have  undertaken 
all  my  labors  for  the  Lord  and  his  people  from  love  ;  I 
am  not  conscious  of  any  other  motive,  and  accursed  be 
every  hour  and  every  moment  that  was  otherwise  em- 
ployed !  One  of  my  chief  concerns  related  to  the  im- 
provement of  schools,  which  I  undertook  and  continued 
many  years  from  a  desire  to  deliver  the  youth  from  the 
toilsome  labyrinths  in  which  they  were  entangled.  Some 
regarded  this  foreign  to  the  office  of  a  minister,  as  if 
Christ  had  not  bound  together  the  two  injunctions, 
*  Feed  my  sheep '  and  '  Feed  my  lambs,'  and  laid  them 
upon  the  beloved  Peter.  To  Christ,  my  eternal  love,  I 
give  unending  thanks  that  he  has  placed  such  affection 
to  his  lambs  in  my  heart,  and  has  given  me,  to  some  de- 
gree at  least,  his  blessing.  I  hope  and  confidently  ex- 
pect from  my  God  that  my  reforms  will  spring  into 
light,  when  the  winter  of  the  Church  is  past,  the  rains 
have  ceased,  and  the  flowers  come  forth  in  the  land ; 
when  God  grants  his  flock  shepherds  after  his  own 
heart,  who  will  feed  not  themselves  but  the  flock  of  the 
Lord  ;  and  when  the  envy  that  is  directed  against  men 
while  living  will  cease  when  they  are  dead." 


REACTION.  213 

(F.)   LOCKE. 

John  Locke  was  borne  at  Wrington,  near  Bristol,  in 
1632.  His  father  served  as  captain  in  the  Parliamentary 
army  during  the  Civil  War.  After  receiving  a  prepara- 
tory training  at  Westminster  School,  he  proceeded  to 
Oxford,  where  he  took  his  bachelor's  degree  in  1655. 
He  was  endowed  with  a  penetrating  and  practical  mind, 
and,  like  Bacon  at  Cambridge,  he  early  found  fault  with 
Oxford  on  account  of  its  extreme  conservative  tenden- 
cies. "  That  university,"  says  Lewes,  "  was  distinguished 
then,  as  it  has  ever  been,  by  its  attachment  to  whatever 
is  old — the  past  is  its  model,  the  past  has  its  affection. 
That  there  is  much  good  in  this  veneration  for  the  past, 
a  few  will  gainsay.  Nevertheless,  a  university  which 
piqued  itself  on  being  behind  the  age,  was  scarcely  a  n't 
place  for  an  original  thinker.  Locke  was  ill  at  ease 
there.  The  philosophy  upheld  there  was  scholasticism. 
On  such  food,  a  mind  like  his  could  not  nourish  itself. 
Like  his  great  predecessor,  Bacon,  he  imbibed  a  profound 
contempt  for  the  university  studies,  and  in  after-life 
regretted  that  so  much  of  his  time  should  have  been 
wasted  on  such  profitless  pursuits." 

After  taking  his  degree  Locke  studied  medicine,  not 
with  the  view  of  becoming  a  practitioner,  but  of  im- 
proving his  feeble  health.  In  this  study  he  made  note- 
worthy attainments,  as  is  shown  in  the  following  en- 
comium, which  is  quoted  more  particularly  for  its  refer- 
ence to  his  intellectual  and  moral  character.  Says  Dr. 
Thomas  Sydenham,  in  a  work  on  medicine :  "  You  know 
likewise  how  much  my  method  has  been  approved  of 
by  a  person  who  has  examined  it  to  the  bottom,  and 


214      FROM  THE  REFORMATION  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME. 

who  is  our  common  friend — I  mean  Mr.  John  Locke — 
who,  if  we  consider  his  genius,  and  penetrating  and  ex- 
act judgment,  or  the  purity  of  his  morals,  has  scarce  any 
superior,  and  few  equals,  now  living." 

After  spending  a  year  at  the  court  of  Berlin,  as  sec- 
retary to  the  English  envoy,  Sir  William  Swan,  he  re- 
turned to  Oxford,  where  he  then  made  the  acquaintance 
of  the  Earl  of  Shaftesbury.  By  this  nobleman,  who  ap- 
preciated his  extraordinary  ability,  he  was  introduced 
into  the  society  of  the  great,  whom  he  attracted  by  his 
unusual  colloquial  powers.  But,  in  all  his  associations 
with  people  of  rank,  he  did  not  lose  his  independence 
of  character.  He  even  ventured  on  one  occasion  to  ad- 
minister a  delicate  but  effective  rebuke.  One  day  three 
or  four  lords  engaged  in  a  game  of  cards  in  his  presence. 
After  looking  on  for  some  time,  he  took  out  his  note- 
book, and  began  to  write  attentively.  Having  been 
asked  by  one  of  the  nobles  what  he  was  writing,  he  re- 
plied :  "  My  lord,  I  am  endeavoring  to  profit,  as  far  as  I 
am  able,  in  your  company ;  for,  having  waited  with  im- 
patience for  the  honor  of  being  in  an  assembly  of  the 
greatest  geniuses  of  this  age,  and  at  last  having  obtained 
the  good  fortune,  I  thought  I  could  not  do  better  than 
write  down  your  conversation ;  and,  indeed,  I  have  set 
down  the  substance  of  what  hath  been  said  for  this  hour 
or  two."  The  rebuke  was  taken  in  good  part ;  and, 
giving  up  their  game,  the  lords  entered  into  conversa- 
tion better  suited  to  their  character. 

Locke  superintended  the  education  of  the  Earl  of 
Shaftesbury's  son.  Subsequently  he  was  charged  with 
the  delicate  task  of  choosing  a  wife  for  his  pupil,  and 
was  fortunate  enough  to  make  a  happy  selection.  The 


REACTION.  215 

education  of  the  oldest  son  by  this  marriage,  a  boy  of 
bright  parts,  was  intrusted  to  Locke ;  and,  as  in  the  case 
of  the  father,  the  result  was  highly  gratifying.  His 
pupil  afterward  became  an  author  of  some  reputation. 
In  acting  as  tutor  in  the  Earl  of  Shaftesbury's  family, 
Locke  had  his  acute  understanding  specifically  directed 
to  the  subject  of  education,  and  it  was  in  the  observa- 
tions and  experience  of  these  years  that  he  developed 
the  independent  views  afterward  embodied  in  his  edu- 
cational treatise,  presently  to  be  noticed. 

Locke  lived  on  terms  of  close  intimacy  with  the  Earl 
of  Shaf  tesbury,  and  was  appointed  by  him  to  an  impor- 
tant government  office.  This  fact  involved  him  in  the 
political  troubles  of  his  generous  patron ;  and,  when  that 
nobleman  was  banished  from  England,  Locke  deemed  it 
prudent  to  follow  him.  During  his  voluntary  exile  in 
Holland,  Locke  was  unjustly  accused  of  writing  certain 
seditious  tracts  against  the  English  Government;  and, 
under  this  suspicion,  he  was  deprived  of  his  place  as 
student  of  Christ-Church  College,  Oxford.  His  sur- 
render by  the  Government  of  Holland  was  demanded 
by  the  English  envoy,  but  he  escaped  by  conceal- 
ment. 

In  1688,  with  the  accession  of  William  and  Mary, 
Locke  found  it  safe  to  return  to  his  native  land.  Here, 
the  year  following,  he  published  his  great  philosophical 
work,  "  An  Essay  concerning  Human  Understanding," 
which  was  designed  to  establish  the  limitations  and 
capabilities  of  the  mind.  It  had  a  wide  circulation  not 
only  in  England,  but  also  in  France  and  Germany ;  and 
everywhere  it  exerted  an  immense  influence  upon  philo- 
sophic thought. 


216      FROM  THE  REFORMATION  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME. 

In  1693  he  published  a  treatise  entitled  "  Some 
Thoughts  concerning  Education."  Two  years  later  he 
received  from  King  William  the  appointment  of  Com- 
missioner of  Trade  and  Plantations ;  but,  after  serving 
several  years  in  this  position,  he  was  obliged  by  failing 
health  to  resign,  and  to  seek  the  fresh  air  of  the  country. 
He  retired  to  Gates,  in  Essex,  and  spent  the  few  remain- 
ing years  of  his  life  in  peaceful  retirement.  He  died 
in  1704. 

After  a  brief  biographical  sketch,  Raumer  says : 
"  From  this  account  of  Locke's  lif  e,  we  are  able  to  an- 
ticipate the  nature  of  his  pedagogical  views.  As  a  phy- 
sician, whose  duty  it  was  to  keep  an  invalid  pupil  from 
dying,  he  was  obliged  to  pay  especial  attention  to 
health ;  as  a  man  who  held  several  public  offices,  asso- 
ciated with  the  most  distinguished  statesmen,  and  edu- 
cated a  statesman's  son,  he  attached  more  importance 
to  the  practical  side  of  education  than  to  mere  learning ; 
he  could  not  avoid  recognizing  the  principles  of  the  no- 
bility, especially  that  of  honor,  likewise  their  views  of 
what  belongs  to  an  educated  nobleman,  and  imbibing 
antipathy  toward  learned  pedantry." 

"Locke  is  a  thorough  Englishman,"  says  Karl 
Schmidt,  "and  the  principle  underlying  his  education 
is  the  principle  according  to  which  the  English  people 
have  developed.  Hence,  his  theory  of  education  has  in 
the  history  of  pedagogy  the  same  value  that  the  English 
nation  has  in  the  history  of  the  world.  He  stood  in 
strong  opposition  to  the  scholastic  education  current  in 
his  time,  a  living  protest  against  the  prevailing  ped- 
antry; in  the  universal  development  of  pedagogy  he 
gives  impulse  to  the  movement  which  grounds  education 


REACTION.  217 

upon  sound  psychological  principles,  and  lays  stress  upon 
breeding  and  the  formation  of  character." 

Locke  begins  his  "  Thoughts  concerning  Education  " 
with  these  words :  "  A  sound  mind  in  a  sound  body  is  a 
short  but  full  description  of  a  happy  state  in  this  world ; 
he  that  has  these  two  has  little  more  to  wish  for ;  and, 
he  that  wants  either  of  them,  will  be  but  little  the  better 
for  anything  else."  The  attainment  of  this  happy  con- 
dition is  the  end  of  education. 

According  to  Locke,  education  in  its  widest  sense  is 
the  molding  force  of  life.  The  early  surroundings  and 
impressions  of  childhood  are  of  weighty  consequence. 
"  It  is  education,"  he  says,  "  which  makes  the  great  dif- 
ference in  mankind.  The  little,  or  almost  insensible, 
impressions  on  our  tender  infancies,  have  very  important 
and  lasting  consequences ;  and  then  it  is,  as  in  the  fount- 
ains of  some  rivers,  where  the  gentle  application  of  the 
hand  turns  the  flexible  waters  into  channels  that  make 
them  take  quite  contrary  courses ;  and,  by  this  little  di- 
rection, given  them  at  first,  in  the  source,  they  receive 
different  tendencies,  and  arrive  at  last  at  very  remote 
and  distant  places." 

Locke  did  not  set  much  store  by  mere  bookish  learn- 
ing. In  his  mind,  the  function  of  education  was  to  form 
noble  men  well  equipped  for  the  duties  of  practical  life. 
He  says :  "  You  will  wonder,  perhaps,  that  I  put  learn- 
ing last,  especially  if  I  tell  you  I  think  it  the  least  part. 
.  .  .  When  I  consider  what  ado  is  made  about  a  little 
Latin  and  Greek,  how  many  years  are  spent  in  it,  and 
what  a  noise  and  business  it  makes  to  no  purpose,  I  can 
hardly  forbear  thinking  that  the  parents  of  children  still 
live  in  fear  of  the  schoolmaster's  rod,  which  they  look 

10 


218      FROM  THE  REFORMATION  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME. 

on  as  the  only  instrument  of  education ;  as  if  a  language 
or  two  were  its  whole  business.  How  else  is  it  possible 
that  a  child  should  be  chained  to  the  oar  seven,  eight, 
or  ten  of  the  best  years  of  his  life,  to  get  a  language 
or  two,  which  I  think  might  be  had  at  a  great  deal 
cheaper  rate  of  pains  and  time,  and  be  learned  almost  in 
playing  ?  .  .  .  Reading  and  writing,  and  learning,  I  al- 
low to  be  necessary,  but  yet  not  the  chief  business.  I 
imagine  you  would  think  him  a  very  foolish  fellow  that 
should  not  value  a  virtuous,  or  a  wise  man,  infinitely 
before  a  scholar.  Not  but  that  I  think  learning  a  great 
help  to  both,  in  well-disposed  minds ;  but  yet  it  must 
be  confessed,  also,  that  in  others  not  so  disposed  it  helps 
them  only  to  be  the  more  foolish,  or  worse  men.  I 
say  this,  that,  when  you  consider  of  the  breeding  of 
your  son,  and  are  looking  out  for  a  schoolmaster,  or  a 
tutor,  you  would  not  have  (as  is  usual)  Latin  and  logic 
only  in  your  thoughts.  Learning  must  be  had,  but  in 
the  second  place,  as  subservient  only  to  greater  qualities. 
Seek  out  somebody  that  may  know  how  discreetly  to 
frame  his  manners ;  place  him  in  hands,  where  you  may, 
as  much  as  possible,  secure  his  innocence,  cherish  and 
nurse  up  the  good,  and  gently  correct  and  weed  out  any 
bad  inclinations,  and  settle  in  him  good  habits.  This  is 
the  main  point ;  and,  this  being  provided  for,  learning 
may  be  had  into  the  bargain." 

"  Virtue  as  the  first  and  most  necessary  of  those  en- 
dowments that  belong  to  a  man  or  a  gentleman,"  was 
based  on  religion.  "As  the  foundation  of  this,"  says 
Locke,  "  there  ought  very  early  to  be  imprinted  on  his 
mind  a  true  notion  of  God,  as  of  the  independent  Su- 
preme Being,  Author  and  Maker  of  all  things,  from 


REACTION.  219 

whom  we  receive  all  our  good,  who  loves  us,  and  gives 
us  all  things ;  and,  consequent  to  this,  instill  into  him  a 
love  and  reverence  of  this  Supreme  Being.  This  is 
enough  to  begin  with,  without  going  to  explain  this 
matter  any  further,  for  fear,  lest  by  talking  too  early  to 
him  of  spirits,  and  being  unreasonably  forward  to  make 
him  understand  the  incomprehensible  nature  of  that  In- 
finite Being,  his  head  be  either  filled  with  false,  or  per- 
plexed with  unintelligible  notions  of  him.  Let  him  only 
be  told  upon  occasion  that  God  made  and  governs  all 
things,  hears  and  sees  everything,  and  does  all  manner 
of  good  to  those  that  love  and  obey  him." 

Locke  attached  great  importance  to  the  care  of  the 
body,  and  devotes  the  first  part  of  his  book  to  a  consid- 
eration of  the  hygienic  laws  to  be  observed.  He  con- 
cludes his  observations  with  these  remarks :  "  And  thus 
I  have  done  with  what  concerns  the  body  and  health, 
which  reduces  itself  to  these  few  and  easily  observable 
rules :  Plenty  of  open  air,  exercise,  and  sleep ;  plain  diet, 
no  wine  or  strong  drink,  and  very  little  or  no  physic ; 
not  too  warm  and  strait  clothing ;  especially  the  head 
and  feet  kept  cold,  and  the  feet  often  used  to  cold  water 
and  exposed  to  wet."  The  wisdom  of  these  rules,  except 
the  last,  has  been  sufficiently  established. 

The  disposition  and  native  capacity  of  pupils  should 
be  considered  in  the  work  of  education.  Children  are 
not  to  be  regarded  as  insensible  objects  to  be  dealt  with 
in  a  blind,  mechanical  way,  but  as  living  creatures  to  be 
carefully  nurtured  and  developed.  "  He  therefore  that 
is  about  children,"  says  Locke,  "  should  well  study  their 
natures  and  aptitudes,  and  see,  by  often  trials,  what  turn 
they  easily  take,  and  what  becomes  them ;  observe  what 


220      FROM  THE  REFORMATION  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME. 

their  native  stock  is,  how  it  may  be  improved,  and  what 
it  is  fit  for ;  he  should  consider  what  they  want,  whether 
they  be  capable  of  having  it  wrought  into  them  by  in- 
dustry, and  incorporated  there  by  practice ;  and  whether 
it  be  worth  while  to  endeavor  it.  For,  in  many  cases, 
all  that  we  can  do,  or  should  aim  at,  is  to  make  the  best 
of  what  Nature  has  given,  to  prevent  the  vices  and  faults 
to  which  such  a  constitution  is  most  inclined,  and  give 
it  all  the  advantages  it  is  capable  of.  Every  one's  nat- 
ural genius  should  be  carried  as  far  as  it  could,  but,  to 
attempt  the  putting  another  upon  him,  will  be  but  labor 
in  vain ;  and,  what  is  so  plastered  on,  will  at  best  sit  but 
untowardly,  and  have  always  hanging  to  it  the  ungrace- 
fulness  of  constraint  and  affectation." 

The  exercises  imposed  upon  pupils  should  be  wisely 
adjusted  to  their  powers  and  attainments.  Locke  con- 
demned the  practice  then  in  vogue  of  requiring  verses 
and  essays  on  abstract  subjects  necessarily  beyond  the 
pupil's  capabilities.  The  study  of  language  should  be 
combined  with  an  acquisition  of  substantial  knowledge. 
"  The  learning  of  Latin,"  he  says,  "  being  nothing  but 
the  learning  of  words,  a  very  unpleasant  business  both 
to  young  and  old,  join  as  much  other  knowledge  with  it 
as  you  can,  beginning  still  with  that  which  lies  most  ob- 
vious to  the  senses — such  as  is  the  knowledge  of  min- 
erals, plants,  and  animals,  and  particularly  timber  and 
fruit-trees,  their  parts  and  ways  of  propagation,  wherein 
a  great  deal  may  be  taught  a  child,  which  will  not  be 
useless  to  the  man ;  but,  more  especially,  geography, 
astronomy,  and  anatomy.  But,  whatever  you  are  teach- 
ing him,  have  a  care  still  that  you  do  not  clog  him  with 
too  much  at  once ;  or  make  anything  his  business  but 


REACTION.  221 

downright  virtue,  or  reprove  him  for  anything  but  vice, 
or  some  apparent  tendency  to  it." 

Of  foreign  languages  Locke  maintained  that  French 
should  be  learned  first,  then  Latin ;  but  these  languages 
should  not  exclude  attention  to  English.  The  mother- 
tongue  has  the  highest  claims  upon  us.  "  This  I  think 
will  be  agreed  to,"  says  Locke,  "  that  if  a  gentleman  is 
to  study  any  language  it  ought  to  be  that  of  his  own 
country,  that  he  may  understand  the  language  which  he 
has  constant  use  of  with  the  utmost  accuracy."  And 
again,  "  Since  it  is  English  that  an  English  gentleman 
will  have  constant  use  of,  that  is  the  language  he  should 
chiefly  cultivate,  and  wherein  most  care  should  be  taken 
to  polish  and  perfect  his  style." 

Locke  thought  that  the  importance  of  a  knowledge 
of  Latin  was  overrated.  Though  regarding  it  indispen- 
sable to  the  wealthy  English  gentleman,  he  disapproved 
of  forcing  Latin  upon  children  who  would  find  no  use 
for  it  in  subsequent  life.  "  Latin  I  look  upon  as  abso- 
lutely necessary  to  a  gentleman,"  he  says ;  "  and  indeed 
custom,  which  prevails  over  everything,  has  made  it  so 
much  a  part  of  education  that  even  those  children  are 
whipped  to  it,  and  made  spend  many  hours  of  their 
precious  time  uneasily  in  Latin,  who,  after  they  are  once 
gone  from  school,  are  never  to  have  more  to  do  with  it 
as  long  as  they  live.  Can  there  be  anything  more  ridicu- 
lous than  that  a  father  should  waste  his  own  money,  and 
his  son's  time,  in  setting  him  to  learn  the  Roman  lan- 
guage, when,  at  the  same  time,  he  designs  him  for  a 
trade,  wherein  he,  having  no  use  of  Latin,  fails  not  to 
forget  that  little  which  he  brought  from  school,  and 
which  it  is  ten  to  one  he  abhors  for  the  ill-usage  it  pro- 


222      FROM  THE  REFORMATION  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME. 

cured  him  ?  Could  it  be  believed,  unless  we  had  every- 
where among  us  examples  of  it,  that  a  child  should  be 
forced  to  learn  the  rudiments  of  a  language,  which  he  is 
never  to  use  in  the  course  of  life  that  he  is  designed  to, 
and  neglect  all  the  while  the  writing  a  good  hand,  and 
casting  accounts,  which  are  of  great  advantage  in  all 
conditions  of  life,  and  to  most  trades  indispensably  neces- 
sary ? " 

Locke  maintained  that  the  best  way  to  learn  a  lan- 
guage, whether  ancient  or  modern,  was  by  practice 
rather  than  by  rule.  He  attached  less  importance  to 
grammar  than  was  common  in  his  day.  "  I  would  fain 
have  any  one  name  to  me  that  tongue,  that  any  one  can 
learn  to  speak  as  he  should  do,  by  the  rules  of  grammar. 
Languages  were  made  not  by  rules  of  art  but  by  acci- 
dent, and  the  common  use  of  the  people.  And  he  that 
will  speak  them  well  has  no  other  rule  but  that,  nor 
anything  to  trust  to  but  his  memory,  and  the  habit  of 
speaking  after  the  fashion  learned  from  those  that  are 
allowed  to  speak  properly,  which,  in  other  words,  is  only 
to  speak  by  rote.  It  will  possibly  be  asked  here,  '  Is 
grammar  then  of  no  use  ?'...!  say  not  so ;  grammar 
has  its  place  too.  But  this  I  think  I  may  say,  there  is 
more  stir  a  great  deal  made  with  it  than  there  needs, 
and  those  are  tormented  about  it  to  whom  it  does 
not  at  all  belong ;  I  mean  children,  at  the  age  where- 
in they  are  usually  perplexed  with  it  in  grammar- 
schools." 

If  space  allowed,  it  would  be  interesting  and  profit- 
able to  extend  these  quotations  further,  for  Locke's  trea- 
tise abounds  in  wise  and  suggestive  thought.  But  we 
conclude  this  sketch  with  the  following  excellent  sum- 


REACTION.  223 

mary  from  Quick :  "  Locke's  aim  was  to  give  a  boy  a  ro- 
bust mind  in  a  robust  body.  His  body  was  to  endure 
hardness,  his  reason  was  to  teach  him  self-denial.  But 
this  result  was  to  be  brought  about  by  leading,  not  driv- 
ing him.  He  was  to  be  trained,  not  for  the  university, 
but  for  the  world.  Good  principles,  good  manners,  and 
discretion,  were  to  be  cared  for  first  of  all ;  intelligence 
and  intellectual  activity  next ;  and  actual  knowledge  last 
of  all.  His  spirits  were  to  be  kept  up  by  kind  treat- 
ment, and  learning  was  never  to  be  a  drudgery.  "With 
regard  to  the  subjects  of  instruction,  those  branches  of 
knowledge  which  concerned  things  were  to  take  prece- 
dence of  those  which  consist  of  abstract  ideas.  The 
prevalent  drill  in  the  grammar  of  the  classical  languages 
was  to  be  abandoned,  the  mother-tongue  was  to  be  care- 
fully studied,  and  other  languages  acquired  either  by 
conversation,  or  by  the  use  of  translations.  In  every- 
thing the  part  the  pupil  was  to  play  in  life  was  steadily 
to  be  kept  in  view;  and  the  ideal  which  Locke  pro- 
posed was  not  the  finished  scholar,  but  the  finished  gen- 
tleman." 

The  reaction  hitherto  considered  against  abstract  the- 
ological and  humanistic  education  was  chiefly  philosoph- 
ical and  realistic.  We  pass  now  to  the  consideration 
of  another  reaction  that  had  its  basis  in  religion,  and  was 
common  to  both  the  Catholic  and  the  Protestant  Church, 
though  it  assumed  a  different  form  in  each.  Europe 
had  just  passed  through  the  misfortunes  and  sorrows  of 
the  Thirty  Years'  War,  and  men  were  in  a  condition  to 
realize  the  insufficiency  of  a  religion  that  consisted  in 
outward  forms  and  mere  intellectual  assent  to  doctrinal 


224:      FROM  THE  REFORMATION  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME. 

systems.     The  need  of  a  religion  of  the  heart  and  life 

was  felt. 

(G.)  JANSENISM. 

This  was  a  movement  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church 
in  favor  of  more  evangelical  doctrine  and  greater  prac- 
tical piety.  It  is  named  from  its  originator,  Jan- 
senius,  a  bishop  in  the  Netherlands,  who  was  an  ardent 
admirer  of  Augustine,  and  reproduced  the  doctrinal 
views  of  that  ecclesiastical  father  in  a  work  pub- 
lished posthumously  in  1640.  The  opinions  thus  set 
forth  stood  in  sharp  contrast  with  the  prevailing  prac- 
tice of  the  Jesuits,  and  found  a  wide  acceptance  and 
vigorous  promulgation.  "In  the  view  of  the  Jansen- 
ists,"  says  Mosheim,  "there  is  nothing  entirely  sound 
and  uncorrupted  in  the  practice  and  institutions  of  the 
Romish  Church.  In  the  first  place,  they  complain  that 
the  whole  body  of  the  clergy  have  forsaken  altogether 
the  duties  of  their  office.  They,  moreover,  assert  that  the 
monks  are  really  apostates,  and  they  would  have  them 
be  brought  back  to  their  pristine  sanctity,  and  to  that 
strict  course  of  life  which  the  founders  of  the  several 
orders  prescribed.  They  would  also  have  the  people 
well  instructed  in  the  knowledge  of  religion  and  Chris- 
tian piety.  They  contend  that  the  sacred  volume,  and 
the  books  containing  the  forms  of  public  worship,  should 
be  put  into  the  hands  of  the  people  in  the  vernacular 
tongue  of  each  nation,  and  should  be  diligently  read  and 
studied  by  all.  And,  lastly,  they  assert  that  all  the  peo- 
ple should  be  carefully  taught  that  true  piety  toward 
God  does  not  consist  in  external  acts  and  rites,  but  in 
purity  of  heart  and  divine  love."  In  practice  the  Jan- 
senists  were  harshly  ascetic.  Their  doctrines  were  bit- 


REACTION.  225 

terly  attacked  by  the  Jesuits,  and  in  the  prolonged  con- 
troversy that  followed  Jansenism  was  finally  suppressed. 

In  France  Jansenism  had  several  distinguished  ad- 
herents, among  whom  were  Pascal  and  Fenelon.  The 
center  of  the  movement  in  that  country  was  Port-Royal, 
an  ancient  convent,  a  few  miles  from  Paris,  where  a 
number  of  pious  and  learned  men  devoted  themselves 
to  study,  teaching,  and  the  practice  of  piety.  They  gave 
much  attention  to  the  instruction  of  youth,  and  by  the 
use  of  wise  methods  they  achieved  excellent  results. 
They  prepared  neat  and  excellent  text-books  on  gram- 
mar, philosophy,  and  other  branches  of  knowledge ;  they 
translated  many  of  the  classic  authors ;  they  produced  a 
large  number  of  devotional  and  practical  works,  in  which 
they  exhibited  a  pure,  chaste,  and  agreeable  style.  In 
connection  with  their  primary  schools,  they  invented 
and  employed  the  phonic  system  of  spelling.  The  study 
of  language  began  with  the  mother-tongue,  and  not,  as 
had  hitherto  been  the  case  in  France,  with  Latin.  The 
doctrine  of  natural  depravity  was  strongly  emphasized 
in  the  Jansenistic  system,  and  hence  a  somewhat  rigor- 
ous discipline  was  maintained.  A  careful  and  unceasing 
surveillance  was  exercised  over  the  pupil.  But  the  hope 
of  a  moral  reformation  was  placed,  not  in  rigid  disci- 
pline, but  in  divine  grace  ;  and  the  method  of  dealing 
with  children  was  reduced  by  a  teacher  of  Port-Royal  to 
these  three  precepts :  "  Speak  little,  endure  a  great  deal, 
and  pray  still  more." 

The  method  of  conducting  the  Port-Royal  schools 
has  been  thus  described  by  an  old  French  writer :  "  Up 
to  the  age  of  twelve  the  pupils  were  occupied  with  the 
elements  of  sacred  history,  geography,  and  arithmetic, 


226      FROM  THE  REFORMATION  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME. 

under  the  form  of  amusements,  in  a  manner  to  develop 
their  intelligence  without  wearying  it.  At  twelve  years 
the  regular  course  of  study  began.  The  hours  of  study 
and  recitation  were  fixed,  but  not  in  an  absolute  way. 
If  study  sometimes  intrenched  upon  recreation,  recre- 
ation also  had  its  turn,  for  circumstances  were  taken  into 
account.  In  winter,  when  the  weather  permitted,  the 
teacher  gave  his  lesson  while  taking  a  walk  with  his  pu- 
pils. Sometimes  they  left  him  to  climb  a  hill  or  run  in 
the  plain,  but  they  came  back  to  listen  to  him.  In  sum- 
mer the  class  met  under  the  shade  of  trees  by  the  side 
of  brooks.  The  teacher  explained  Yirgil  and  Homer ; 
he  commented  upon  Cicero,  Aristotle,  Plato,  and  the 
fathers  of  the  Church.  The  example  of  the  teachers, 
their  conversation  and  familiar  instruction,  all  that  the 
pupil  saw,  all  that  he  heard,  inspired  him  with  a  love  for 
the  beautiful  and  the  good." 

We  are  now  prepared  to  form  some  idea  of  the  Port- 
Royal  education,  and  to  see  its  direct  opposition  to  the 
Jesuit  system.  It  ranges  the  teachers  of  Port-Royal  by 
the  side  of  the  illustrious  educational  reformers  consid- 
ered in  the  preceding  section.  It  simplified  studies,  and 
made  them  pleasant  to  the  pupil ;  it  gave  a  worthy 
prominence  to  the  mother-tongue ;  it  developed  the  un- 
derstanding along  with  the  memory ;  it  imparted  sub- 
stantial knowledge  in  connection  with  words ;  it  devel- 
oped the  faculties,  paid  attention  to  the  body,  and  watched 
over  the  formation  of  character.  For  the  rest,  the  lan- 
guage of  Paroz  is  adopted :  "  In  persecuting  the  Prot- 
estants, and  in  suppressing  Jansenism,  Louis  XIV.  de- 
prived Christianity  in  France  of  its  power  and  freedom, 
and  prepared  the  way  for  the  mocking  and  frivolous 


REACTION.  227 

unbelief  of  "the  eighteenth  century.  During  the  past 
few  years  distinguished  savants,  like  Cousin,  Faugere, 
Yinet,  and  especially  Sainte-Beuve,  have  called  the  at- 
tention of  the  French  people  to  the  work,  too  long  for- 
gotten, of  Port-Koyal ;  they  have  drawn  from  that 
source  subjects  of  study  that  have  had  a  high  literary, 
philosophical,  religious,  and  educational  significance.  If 
France  had  developed  the  pedagogical  work  commenced 
by  Port-Royal,  it  would  be  further  advanced  by  almost 
two  centuries.  The  whole  of  the  eighteenth  century 
and  the  first  third  of  the  nineteenth  dragged  themselves 
along  in  sterile  philosophical  and  political  theories ;  it  is 
only  within  the  past  few  years  that  good  educational 
works  are  beginning  to  appear  again  in  France,  taking 
up  the  thread  broken  by  Louis  XIV." 

After  these  remarks  in  general  upon  the  educational 
system  of  Port-Koyal,  it  is  necessary  to  speak  of  two 
distinguished  educators  who  held,  more  or  less  fully,  its 
religious  and  educational  views.  These  are  Fenelon  and 
Eollin. 

(H.)   FENELON. 

This  celebrated  author  and  teacher  was  born  in  the 
province  of  Perigord,  in  1651.  From  an  early  age  he 
was  remarkable  for  industry,  for  his  amiable  disposition, 
and  thirst  for  knowledge.  Up  to  the  age  of  twelve  his 
education  was  conducted  at  home ;  he  was  then  sent  to 
Cahors,  and  two  years  later  to  Paris,  where  his  course  of 
instruction  was  completed.  Destined  to  the  clerical 
office  by  his  family,  and  inclined  toward  it  by  natural 
gifts  and  disposition,  he  entered  the  theological  semi- 
nar)' of  Saint-Sulpice,  and  won  general  esteem  by  his 


228   FROM  THE  REFORMATION  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME. 

application,  ability,  and  exemplary  character.  He  was 
ordained  priest  at  the  age  of  twenty-four,  and  was 
shortly  afterward  placed  over  an  institution  in  Paris 
designed  for  the  instruction  of  young  women  who  had 
renounced  the  Protestant  faith.  "No  person,"  says 
Roche,  "  was  more  capable  than  he  of  rendering  virtue 
attractive  by  that  touching  and  effective  language  which 
addresses  itself  to  the  heart  and  inspires  confidence. 
To  this  precious  gift  he  joined  the  merit  of  giving  his 
instructions  that  simple,  clear,  and  agreeable  form  that 
placed  them  within  reach  of  all  minds."  He  spent  ten 
years  of  his  life  as  director  of  this  institution,  and  it 
was  while  in  charge  of  it  that  he  wrote  his  excellent 
work  on  the  "  Education  of  Girls,"  presently  to  be 
noticed  at  some  length. 

After  the  revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes,  Fenelon 
was  placed  at  the  head  of  a  mission  that  was  sent  to 
Poitou  to  labor  for  the  conversion  to  Romanism  of  the 
Protestant  portion  of  the  population.  He  fulfilled  the 
trying  duties  of  this  office  with  gentleness  and  tolera- 
tion ;  and  such  was  the  affability  of  his  manners  and  the 
charm  of  his  discourse  that  his  labors  were  not  unat- 
tended with  success. 

In  1689  he  was  appointed  tutor  to  the  young  Duke 
of  Burgundy,  grandson  of  Louis  XIY.  This  young 
prince  was  endowed  with  fine  natural  abilities,  but  pos- 
sessed of  an  inordinate  pride  and  a  furious  temper.  This 
rendered  Fenelon's  task  exceedingly  difficult,  but  he 
discharged  its  duties  with  rare  wisdom  and  surprising 
success.  "  In  a  short  time,"  says  a  writer  quoted  by 
Roche,  "  affection  and  kindness  made  a  different  person 
of  the  prince,  and  changed  many  and  serious  faults  into 


REACTION.  229 

the  wholly  opposite  virtues.  From  this  abyss  there 
came  forth  a  prince  affable,  gentle,  humane,  moderate, 
patient,  humble,  and  self -controlled.  Wholly  devoted 
to  his  obligations,  and  regarding  them  as  great,  he  only 
thought  henceforth  of  uniting  the  duties  of  son  and  sub- 
ject with  those  to  which  he  saw  himself  destined." 

The  following  incident  shows  the  wisdom  with  which 
Fenelon  knew  how  to  deal  with  his  pupil :  In  a  fit  of 
anger  occasioned  by  a  gentle  reproof,  the  young  duke 
once  said  to  him,  "  I  know  who  I  am,  and  who  you  are ! " 
Fenelon  made  no  reply ;  but  on  the  following  day,  in  a 
tranquil  but  serious  tone,  he  said  to  his  pupil :  "  You  re- 
call, no  doubt,  the  words  you  spoke  to  me  yesterday.  My 
duty  obliges  me  to  reply  to  you  that  you  know  neither 
who  you  are  nor  who  I  am.  If  you  think  yourself  above 
me,  you  are  mistaken ;  your  birth  did  not  depend  upon 
you  and  gives  you  no  merit,  and  I  have  more  prudence 
and  knowledge  than  you.  What  you  know  you  have 
learned  from  me,  and  I  am  above  you  by  reason  of  the 
authority  which  the  king  and  your  father  have  given 
me  over  you.  It  was  in  obedience  to  them  that  I  have 
undertaken  the  difficult  and,  as  it  seems,  ungrateful  task 
of  being  your  teacher ;  but,  since  you  appear  to  think 
that  I  ought  to  feel  particularly  fortunate  in  discharging 
this  duty,  I  wish  to  go  with  you  at  once  to  the  king  and 
request  him  to  relieve  me  of  my  duties  and  to  give  you 
another  instructor." 

This  declaration  filled  the  young  prince  with  alarm, 
and,  bursting  into  tears,  he  exclaimed :  "  I  am  sorry  for 
what  happened  yesterday.  If  you  speak  to  the  king,  I 
shall  forfeit  his  friendship.  If  you  leave  me,  what  will 
be  thought  of  me?  Forgive  me,  and  I  promise  that 


230      FROM  THE  REFORMATION  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME. 

you  will  have  no  ground  of  complaint  in  the  future." 
This  was  no  doubt  the  result  aimed  at ;  but  Fenelon  did 
not  yield  at  once,  and  left  his  pupil  in  painful  uncer- 
tainty for  a  day,  when,  assured  that  the  repentance  was 
sincere,  he  resumed  his  duties. 

In  the  work  of  instructing  his  pupil  Fenelon  com- 
posed fables,  compiled  histories,  and  wrote  fiction  em- 
bodying valuable  lessons.  It  was  with  this  view  that  he 
wrote  his  "  Telemachus,"  a  work  that  has  a  permanent 
place  in  the  classic  literature  of  France.  Under  his  in- 
struction, which  comprehended  religion,  morals,  philoso- 
phy, history,  languages,  literature,  and  politics,  the  young 
prince  made  admirable  attainments.  A  brilliant  future 
was  predicted  for  him,  but  death  intervened  to  prevent 
its  realization. 

In  1695  Fenelon  was  elevated  to  the  archbishopric 
of  Cambray,  in  recognition  of  his  previous  services.  He 
devoted  himself  conscientiously  to  the  duties  of  his  dio- 
cese. He  led  a  life  of  great  simplicity,  and  divided  his 
time  between  the  administration  of  affairs  and  the  per- 
sonal instruction  of  his  flock.  Though  he  had  delighted 
the  French  court  by  his  eloquence,  and  had  embarrassed 
Bossuet  by  his  ability,  yet  he  found  pleasure  in  going 
through  the  villages  of  his  diocese  to  teach  the  simple 
peasantry  the  catechism  in  language  suited  to  their  un- 
cultured condition. 

The  later  years  of  his  life  were  rendered  unhappy 
by  theological  controversies,  by  the  displeasure  of  the 
king,  and  by  the  loss  of  his  dearest  friends.  His  sor- 
rows were  heavy,  but  he  bore  them  with  touching  resig- 
nation. "  He  died,"  says  Lamartine,  "  like  a  saint  and 
poet,  listening  to  the  sweetest  and  sublimest  hymns, 


REACTION.  231 

winch  carried  at  the  same  time  his  imagination  and  his 
soul  to  heaven." 

Fenelon's  work  on  the  "  Education  of  Girls "  is  an 
admirable  treatise.  It  not  only  presents  advanced  views 
in  regard  to  female  education,  but  it  abounds  in  general 
pedagogical  principles  of  great  wisdom,  drawn  from  a 
profound  acquaintance  with  child-nature. 

Regarding  woman  as  intellectually  inferior  to  man, 
he  excludes  her  from  politics,  the  law,  the  ministry,  and 
other  masculine  vocations.  "  But  what  follows,"  he 
asks,  "from  the  natural  weakness  of  women?  The 
weaker  they  are,  the  more  it  is  important  to  strengthen 
them.  Have  they  not  duties  to  perform,  duties  that 
constitute  the  foundation  of  all  human  life  ?  Is  it  not 
women  that  ruin  and  that  sustain  households,  that  regu- 
late all  the  details  of  domestic  matters,  and  that  conse- 
quently decide  what  concerns  most  nearly  the  whole 
human  race  ?  In  this  way  they  have  the  principal  part 
in  the  good  or  bad  morals  of  almost  the  whole  world. 
A  judicious,  diligent,  and  pious  woman  is  the  soul  of  a 
household ;  she  establishes  order  in  it  for  temporal  pros- 
perity and  salvation.  Even  men,  who  have  all  public 
authority,  are  not  able  by  their  deliberations  to  establish 
any  effective  measure  for  good,  unless  the  women  aid 
them  in  having  it  executed." 

Female  education  is  a  necessity.  If  a  girl  is  left 
without  a  proper  education,  and  is  allowed  to  grow  up  in 
idleness,  she  will  naturally  fall  into  objectionable  habits, 
and  develop  a  discontented  disposition.  "  Ignorant 
and  idle  girls,"  Fenelon  says,  "  always  have  a  wandering 
imagination.  In  the  absence  of  solid  instruction,  their 
curiosity  turns  strongly  to  vain  and  dangerous  subjects. 


232  FROM  THE  REFORMATION  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME. 

Those  possessing  ability  sometimes  become  affected,  and 
read  all  the  books  that  can  nourish  their  vanity ;  they 
become  excessively  fond  of  romances,  comedies,  and  ex- 
travagant adventures,  with  which  unworthy  love  is  com- 
mingled. They  render  their  minds  visionary,  in  accus- 
toming themselves  to  the  magnificent  language  of  the 
heroes  of  romances ;  they  thus  disqualify  themselves 
even  for  society ;  for  all  those  beautiful,  ethereal  senti- 
ments, those  generous  affections,  all  those  adventures  in- 
vented by  the  novelist  in  order  to  give  pleasure,  have  no 
relation  with  the  true  motives  which  are  operative  in 
the  world,  and  which  decide  affairs,  nor  with  the  fail- 
ures which  we  experience  in  every  undertaking." 

Education  should  be  commenced  at  a  very  early  age. 
"  In  order  to  remedy  all  these  evils,"  says  Fenelon,  "  it 
is  a  great  advantage  to  be  able  to  begin  the  education  of 
girls  in  infancy.  This  early  age,  which  is  abandoned 
to  indiscreet  and  sometimes  profligate  women,  is  that  in 
which  the  deepest  impressions  are  made,  and  which  has 
consequently  a  strong  influence  on  all  subsequent  life." 
This  early  education  should  have  reference  to  the  body, 
the  mind,  and  character.  The  health  should  be  cared 
for ;  the  faculties  should  not  be  prematurely  developed ; 
the  passions  should  not  be  inflamed,  and  patience  and 
self-denial  should  be  inculcated  and  practiced. 

As  the  basis  of  methods  of  instruction,  Fenelon  thus 
portrays  the  nature  of  the  mind  in  childhood:  "The 
substance  of  the  brain  is  soft,  and  it  hardens  every  day ; 
as  for  the  mind,  it  knows  nothing — everything  is  new  to 
it.  The  soft  condition  of  the  brain  makes  it  easily  sus- 
ceptible to  impressions,  and  the  surprise  of  novelty  easily 
excites  admiration,  and  renders  children  very  inquisi- 


REACTION.  233 

tive.  It  is  true,  also,  that  this  humid  and  soft  state  of 
the  brain,  joined  to  great  warmth,  gives  it  ready  and 
continual  motion.  Hence  comes  the  restlessness  of  chil- 
dren, who  are  unable  to  fix  their  minds  upon  any  sub- 
ject, or  their  bodies  in  any  place." 

Instruction  should  be  made  pleasant,  and  the  utility 
of  the  subjects  taught  should  be  explained.  "By  all 
means  let  the  child  play,"  says  Fenelon ;  "  let  wisdom 
be  forced  upon  him  only  at  intervals,  and  with  a  laugh- 
ing face ;  beware  of  tiring  him  with  injudicious  exac- 
tions. ...  It  is  necessary  to  explain  the  reason  of  what 
one  teaches.  You  should  say  to  your  pupils :  '  This  is 
to  prepare  you  for  your  future  vocation  ;  this  is  to  form 
your  judgment ;  this  is  to  accustom  you  to  reason  justly 
upon  all  the  affairs  of  life.'  It  is  necessary  to  show  them 
always  a  solid  and  agreeable  purpose  that  will  sustain 
them  in  their  efforts,  and  never  to  pretend  to  control 
them  by  a  dry  and  absolute  authority." 

The  fondness  that  children  have  for  history  should 
not  be  unimproved.  Instructive  narratives  should  be 
presented,  particularly  those  of  the  Bible ;  for  the  latter, 
apart  from  historical  knowledge,  have  a  moral  and  re- 
ligious value.  The  moral  and  religious  instruction  should 
be  watched  over  with  special  care,  and  the  faults  and 
weaknesses  to  which  girls  are  liable  should  be  guarded 
against.  The  education  of  woman  should  have  regard 
to  domestic  relations,  for  whose  manifold  duties  and 
responsibilities  a  high  degree  of  wisdom  is  necessary. 
Girls  should  be  instructed  in  reading,  writing,  and  arith- 
metic; in  keeping  accounts;  in  the  leading  principles 
of  justice  and  government ;  and,  after  these  fundamental 
studies,  history,  language,  literature,  music,  and  painting 


234:     FROM  THE  REFORMATION  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME. 

might  be  taught,  yet  in  such  a  manner  as  to  preserve 
pupils  from  all  moral  injury. 

Paroz  concludes  his  study  of  Fenelon's  treatise  with 
the  following  judicious  remarks :  "  We  have  to-day  edu- 
cational works  that  are  more  complete  and  systematic, 
but  this  one  will  live  because  of  its  excellent  spirit  and 
beautiful  style.  In  all  ages  and  in  every  land  it  will 
be  read  with  pleasure  and  profit.  Of  all  the  Catholic 
clergy  who  have  engaged  in  educational  work,  Fenelon 
has  perhaps  approached  nearest  to  the  rational  princi- 
ples which  form  the  basis  of  modern  pedagogy.  The 
order  of  Nature  has  a  place  in  his  theology,  and  he 
knows  how  to  reconcile  the  needs  of  temporal  life  with 
the  spirit  of  Christianity.  This  characteristic  will  al- 
ways assign  him  a  high  rank  among  educators." 

(i.)  EOLLIN. 

Kollin,  so  well  known  in  this  country  by  his  "  An- 
cient History,"  was  born  at  Paris,  in  1661.  He  was  the 
son  of  a  poor  but  honest  cutler,  who  intended  his  son  to 
follow  the  same  vocation.  He  was  rescued  from  this 
humble  state  by  a  Benedictine  friar,  who  discovered 
young  Rollin's  abilities,  and  had  him  entered  at  the  Col- 
lege du  Plessis.  Having  that  ardent  desire  for  knowl- 
edge, so  often  accompanying  genius,  he  made  rapid 
progress,  and  early  established  a  well-founded  reputa- 
tion. He  was  especially  proficient  in  literary  studies. 
"  Go  to  Eollin,"  said  his  professor  of  rhetoric,  when  ap- 
plied to  for  any  prose  or  poetic  composition ;  "he  will 
do  it  better  than  I  can."  Eollin  studied  theology  three 
years  at  the  Sorbonne,  the  most  celebrated  of  the  Catho- 
lic seminaries  of  France. 


REACTION.  235 

In  1688  lie  was  elevated  to  the  chair  of  Eloquence  in 
the  Royal  College  of  France,  and  filled  the  position  with 
zeal  and  success.  He  encouraged  the  study  of  the  French 
language  and  literature,  and  revived  an  interest  in  the 
ancient  tongues,  particularly  in  Greek.  In  1694  he  was 
appointed  rector  of  the  University  of  Paris,  and  signal- 
ized his  brief  tenure  of  two  years  by  the  introduction  of 
some  salutary  reforms.  In  1699  he  was  made  principal 
of  the  College  of  Beauvais,  and  so  great  had  his  reputa- 
tion now  become  that  he  soon  filled  its  deserted  halls 
with  students.  But  his  life  was  not  to  run  on  smoothly. 
His  adherence  to  Jansenism,  which  has  already  been 
explained,  brought  upon  him  the  unrelenting  persecu- 
tion of  the  Jesuits,  and  he  was  forced  to  give  up  his  po- 
sition in  1712. 

In  1720  he  was  called  from  his  modest  but  busy  re- 
tirement to  assume  again  the  management  of  the  uni- 
versity as  rector.  Six  years  later  he  published  his 
"  Treatise  on  Studies,"  which  entitles  him  to  an  honor- 
able place  in  educational  history.  Not  long  afterward 
he  completed  his  "  Ancient  History,"  which,  despite  its 
credulity,  inaccuracy,  and  excessive  admiration  for  an- 
tiquity, possesses  a  charm  that  will  always  render  it  a 
pleasing  and  profitable  work. 

As  a  man,  Rollin  was  worthy  not  simply  of  respect 
but  also  of  affection.  "  In  Rollin's  character,"  says  a 
biographer,  "  learning  was  ennobled  by  virtue,  and  vir- 
tue elevated  by  piety.  His  piety  was  not  affected — was 
not  the  homage  that  vice  pays  to  virtue,  but  that  of  an 
honest  and  ardent  mind.  He  lived  in  what  is  termed 
the  Augustan  age  of  French  literature — the  age  of  Louis 
XIV. — so  much  extolled  by  Yoltaire,  and  was  contem- 


236      FEQM  THE  REFORMATION  TO  TEE  PRESENT  TIME. 

poraneous  with  her  most  celebrated  literary  characters. 
Although  not  entitled  to  the  first  rank  among  the  writers 
of  his  own  country,  yet  his  attainments  were  great,  his 
talents  respectable,  his  learning  extensive,  and  his  taste 
purified  by  the  models  of  classical  antiquity.  It  may  be 
affirmed  that  his  virtues  were  of  the  first  order,  and  what 
blemishes  were  in  his  character  were  as  small  spots  in  a 
luminous  body." 

"We  now  turn  to  Rollin's  "  Treatise  on  Studies,"  in 
which  he  treats  of  primary  education ;  of  the  study  of 
language ;  of  poetry ;  of  rhetoric  ;  of  the  several  kinds 
of  eloquence;  of  history;  of  philosophy;  and  of  the 
management  of  colleges.  "  The  purpose  of  teachers," 
says  Rollin,*  "  is  not  simply  to  teach  their  pupils  Lathi 
and  Greek ;  to  show  them  how  to  write  exercises,  verses, 
and  amplifications ;  to  load  their  memory  with  historic 
facts  and  dates ;  to  construct  syllogisms  in  due  form ; 
and  to  trace  on  paper  certain  lines  and  figures.  This 
knowledge,  I  do  not  deny,  is  useful  and  valuable,  but  as 
a  means  and  not  as  an  end.  .  .  .  The  purpose  of  teach- 
ers, in  the  long  course  of  study,  is  to  accustom  their  pu- 
pils to  serious  work ;  to  make  them  esteem  and  love  the 
sciences ;  to  show  them  how  to  make  progress ;  to  make 
them  feel  the  use  and  value  of  knowledge — and  in  this 
way  prepare  them  for  the  different  pursuits  to  which 
Providence  may  call  them.  The  purpose  of  teachers, 
still  more  than  that,  is  to  form  the  mind  and  heart  of 
their  pupils ;  to  protect  their  innocence ;  to  inspire 
them  with  principles  of  honor  and  probity;  to'  have 
them  form  good  habits;  to  correct  and  suppress  in 

*  The  rest  of  this  sketch  is  translated  from  Paroz,  with  but  few 
changes. 


REACTION.  237 

them,  by  gentle  means,  the  bad  inclinations  that  may 
be  observed." 

Rollin  laid  great  stress  upon  religious  or  spiritual 
education.  "  What  is  a  Christian  teacher  charged  with 
the  education  of  the  young  ? "  he  asks.  "  He  is  a  man 
in  whose  hands  Jesus  Christ  has  placed  a  certain  num- 
ber of  children  whom  he  has  redeemed  by  his  blood,  in 
whom  he  lives  as  his  temple,  whom  he  regards  as  his 
members,  as  his  brethren,  as  his  co-heirs ;  of  whom  he 
wishes  to  make  kings  and  priests  who  will  reign  and 
serve  God  with  him  and  by  him  through  all  eternity. 
And  for  what  purpose  has  he  confided  children  to  them  ? 
Is  it  just  to  make  poets,  orators,  philosophers,  and  schol- 
ars of  them  ?  Who  would  dare  say  or  even  think  that  ? 
It  is  for  the  purpose  of  preserving  in  them  the  precious 
and  inestimable  gift  of  innocence  which  he  has  impressed 
upon  their  souls  by  baptism — for  the  purpose  of  making 
true  Christians  of  them.  This  is  the  end  of  education, 
and  all  the  rest  holds  the  place  of  means." 

What  are  the  qualifications  of  a  teacher?  Rollin 
answers  :  "  When  a  teacher  has  asked  and  received  from 
Jesus  Christ,  for  the  management  of  others  and  for  his 
own  salvation,  the  spirit  of  wisdom  and  knowledge,  the 
spirit  of  counsel  and  strength,  the  spirit  of  learning  and 
piety,  and,  above  all,  the  spirit  of  fear  of  the  Lord,  there 
is  nothing  further  to  be  said  to  him ;  this  spirit  is  an  in- 
ternal teacher  that  dictates  and  instructs  in  everything, 
and  that  on  every  occasion  will  show  him  his  duties 
and  give  him  wisdom  to  perform  them.  A  great  indi- 
cation that  one  has  received  it  is  when  he  feels  an  ardent 
zeal  for  the  salvation  of  children ;  when  he  is  touched 
by  their  dangers ;  when  he  is  sensible  to  their  faults ; 


238     FROM  THE  REFORMATION  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME. 

when  he  experiences  something  of  the  tenderness  and 
solicitude  that  Paul  felt  for  the  Galatians." 

Rollin  lays  down  some  excellent  rules  and  principles 
for  the  management  of  children  : 

"  1.  The  first  duty  of  the  teacher  is  to  study  well  the 
genius  and  character  of  children.  To  wish  to  place  them 
on  the  same  level,  and  to  subject  them  to  a  single  rule, 
is  to  force  nature. 

"  2.  In  education  the  highest  skill  consists  in  know- 
ing how  to  unite,  by  a  wise  temperament,  a  force  that 
restrains  children  without  repelling  them,  and  a  gentle- 
ness that  wins  without  enervating  them. 

"3.  The  short  and  common  method  of  correcting 
children  is  with  the  rod ;  but  this  remedy  sometimes 
becomes  a  more  dangerous  evil  than  those  which  one 
seeks  to  cure,  if  it  is  employed  without  reason  and  mod- 
eration. 

"  4:.  The  only  vice,  it  seems  to  me,  that  deserves  se- 
vere treatment  is  obstinacy  in  evil,  but  an  obstinacy  vol- 
untary, determined,  and  well  defined. 

"5.  The  teacher  ought  never  to  punish  in  anger, 
especially  if  the  fault  which  he  punishes  concerns  him 
personally,  such  as  a  want  of  respect  or  some  offensive 
speech. 

"  6.  Cuffs,  blows,  and  other  like  treatment,  are  abso- 
lutely forbidden  to  teachers.  They  ought  to  punish  only 
to  correct,  and  passion  does  not  correct. 

"  7.  It  is  a  quite  common  fault  to  make  use  of  repri- 
mands for  the  slightest  faults  which  are  almost  inevita- 
ble to  children.  This  breaks  the  force  of  reprimands, 
and  renders  them  fruitless. 

"  8.  "We  should  avoid  exciting  the  spite  of  children 


REACTION.  239 

by  the  harshness  of  our  language,  their  anger  by  exag- 
geration, their  pride  by  marks  of  contempt. 

"  9.  It  is  necessary  always  to  show  children  a  sub- 
stantial and  agreeable  end  which  may  hold  them  to 
work,  and  never  pretend  to  force  them  by  a  direct  and 
absolute  authority. 

"  10.  "We  should  run  the  risk  of  discouraging  chil- 
dren if  we  never  praised  them  when  they  do  well.  Al- 
though praises  are  to  be  feared  because  of  vanity,  it  is 
necessary  to  make  use  of  them  to  encourage  children, 
without  cultivating  that  vice. 

"11.  Rewards  are  not  to  be  neglected  for  children, 
and  although  they  are  not,  any  more  than  praise,  the 
principal  motive  to  make  them  act,  yet  both  may  be- 
come useful  to  virtue,  and  a  strong  incentive  to  its  prac- 
tice. 

"  12.  It  is  a  great  good  fortune  for  young  people  to 
find  masters  whose  life  is  a  continual  lesson ;  whose  ac- 
tions do  not  belie  their  teaching;  who  practice  what 
they  preach,  and  shun  what  they  censure ;  and  who  are 
admired  more  for  their  conduct  than  for  their  instruc- 
tion." 

(j.)  PIETISM. 

Pietism  is  a  term  of  reproach  fixed  upon  a  worthy 
movement  in  the  Protestant  Church  in  the  direction  of 
a  consistent  Christian  life.  This  movement  was  opposed 
to  the  formality  and  inconsistency  characteristic  of  the 
period  of  "  dead  orthodoxy."  It  was  begun  by  Philip 
Jacob  Spener,  a  man  of  fine  natural  abilities,  large  at- 
tainments, and  deep  spirituality.  As  leading  pastor  at 
Frankfort-on-the-Main,  he  began,  in  1670,  to  hold  meet- 


24:0     FROM  THE  REFORMATION  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME. 

ings  at  his  house  for  the  promotion  of  biblical  knowl- 
edge and  the  cultivation  of  evangelical  piety.  He  con- 
tinued his  reformatory  efforts  at  Dresden  as  chief  court- 
preacher,  and  afterward  at  Berlin  as  provost  of  the 
Church  of  St.  Nicholas.  "A  return  from  scholastic 
theology  to  the  holy  Scriptures  as  the  living  source  of 
all  saving  knowledge,"  says  Kurtz;  "a  conversion  of 
the  outward  orthodox  confession  into  an  inner  living 
theology  of  the  heart,  and  a  demonstration  thereof  in 
true  piety  of  life — these  were  the  ways  and  means  by 
which  he  proposed  to  effect  the  desired  reform."  The 
Pietistic  movement  gave  rise  to  a  prolonged  contro- 
versy, whose  general  influence,  in  spite  of  much  bitter- 
ness and  persecution,  was  favorable  to  Christian  life  in 
the  Church. 

(K.)  FKANCKE. 

Pietism  was  brought  into  relation  with  education 
chiefly  by  August  Hermann  Francke,  who  as  a  success- 
ful and  consecrated  Christian  teacher  exerted  a  wide  in- 
fluence. He  was  born  at  Liibeck,  on  the  Baltic,  in  1663. 
He  received  his  preparatory  training  at  the  Gymnasium 
of  Gotha,  after  which  he  attended  the  universities  of 
Erfurt  and  Kiel,  studying  metaphysics,  natural  science, 
history,  languages,  and  theology.  A  remark  of  his  in 
reference  to  this  period  of  his  life  throws  light  upon  the 
prevalent  method  of  theological  study.  "  My  theology," 
he  says,  "I  grasped  with  the  head  but  not  with  the 
heart ;  it  was  more  a  dead  science  than  a  living  knowl- 
edge. I  indeed  knew  how  to  define  faith,  regeneration, 
justification,  renewal,  and  so  on ;  also,  how  to  distinguish 
one  from  the  other,  and  to  prove  it  by  passages  from 


REACTION. 

Scripture ;  but  I  found  nothing  in  my  heart  of  it  all, 
and  possessed  nothing  more  than  what  existed  in  my 
memory  and  imagination.  Yea,  I  had  no  other  concep- 
tion of  theological  study  than  that  it  consisted  in  having 
well  in  mind  the  theological  assemblies  and  books,  and 
in  being  able  to  speak  learnedly  about  them." 

After  leaving  the  universities  Francke  spent  a  year 
and  a  half  at  Gotha,  during  which  time  he  read  the  He- 
brew Bible  through  seven  times.  In  1684  he  went  to 
Leipsic,  where  his  lectures  on  the  Old  and  New  Testa- 
ments, differing  widely  from  the  cold,  logical  processes 
of  the  universities,  attracted  considerable  attention.  He 
sympathized  with  Spener's  views,  and  joined  the  Pietistic 
reform.  In  1687  he  went  to  Hamburg,  where  he  estab- 
lished a  primary  school  that  brought  him  valuable  expe- 
rience and  determined  the  direction  of  his  life.  "  Upon 
the  establishment  of  this  school,"  he  says,  "  I  learned 
how  destructive  the  usual  school  management  is,  and 
how  exceedingly  difficult  the  discipline  of  children  ;  and 
this  reflection  made  me  desire  that  God  would  make  me 
worthy  to  do  something  for  the  improvement  of  schools 
and  instruction." 

In  1691  the  University  of  Halle  was  founded,  and 
the  following  year,  through  the  influence  of  Spener, 
Francke  was  appointed  Professor  of  Greek  and  Oriental 
Languages,  and  at  the  same  time  pastor  of  a  suburban 
church.  Here  in  Halle  he  accomplished  a  great  work, 
which  stands  in  educational  history  almost  without  a 
parallel.  The  beginning  was  very  humble.  The  poor 
were  accustomed  to  assemble  on  Thursday  before  the 
parsonage  to  receive  alms.  The  thought  occurred  to 
Francke  that  the  occasion  might  be  improved  for  re- 
11 


242     FROM  THE  REFORMATION  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME. 

ligious  instruction.  He  invited  the  crowd  of  young  and 
old  into  his  house,  and  along  with  bread  he  administered 
spiritual  food.  He  learned  the  condition  of  the  poorer 
classes,  and  his  heart  was  touched  by  their  ignorance 
and  need.  He  deprived  himself  of  comforts  to  admin- 
ister to  their  necessities.  He  solicited  aid  from^his 
friends,  and  hung  up  a  poor-box  to  receive  contribu- 
tions. One  day  he  found  in  it  the  sum  of  seven  florins, 
the  gift  of  a  benevolent  woman.  With  the  joy  of  faith 
he  exclaimed:  "  That  is  a  splendid  capital,  with  which  I 
must  accomplish  something  useful ;  I  will  begin  a  school 
for  the  poor  I "  Books  were  immediately  bought,  and  a 
needy  student  of  the  university  engaged  to  teach  the 
children  two  hours  each  day.  The  undertaking  pros- 
pered ;  the  parsonage  soon  became  too  small ;  more  com- 
modious quarters  had  to  be  engaged.  With  increasing 
wants  came  enlarged  contributions,  and  Francke  con- 
tinued to  develop  his  work  till  it  assumed  at  length  im- 
mense proportions.  At  the  time  of  his  death,  in  1727, 
it  comprised  the  following  institutions : 

1.  The  Pedagogium,  having  eighty-two  students. 
This  school  was  designed  for  the  higher  classes,  and  pro- 
vided instruction  in  religion,  Latin,  Greek,  Hebrew, 
French,  German,  arithmetic,  geography,  history,  chro- 
nology, geometry,  astronomy,  music,  botany,  anatomy, 
and  the  essential  principles  of  medicine.  In  order  to 
render  instruction  as  practicable  as  possible,  the  school 
was  equipped  with  a  museum  of  natural  history,  a  chem- 
ical laboratory,  apparatus  for  experiments  in  physics, 
and  a  botanical  garden.  All  this  marked  a  departure  in 
the  secondary  education  of  the  time,  and  places  Francke 
among  the  educational  reformers. 


REACTION.  243 

2.  The  Latin  School  of  the  Orphan  House,  with  three 
inspectors,  thirty-two  teachers,  four  hundred  students, 
and  ten  servants. 

3.  The  German  Burgher  School,  with  four  inspect- 
ors, one  hundred  and  six  teachers,  and  seventeen  hun- 
dred and  twenty-eight  pupils  of  both  sexes.     This  held 
the  rank  of  a  good  primary  school. 

4.  The  Orphan  House,  with  one  hundred  boys,  thirty- 
four  girls,  and  ten  overseers. 

5.  The  Free  Table,  with  six  hundred  and  fifteen  in- 
digent scholars. 

6.  The  Drug-Store  and  Book-Store,  with  fifty-three 
dependents. 

T.  The  Institution  for  Women,  with  twenty-nine  in- 
mates. 

The  whole  number  of  teachers,  pupils,  and  depend- 
ents in  the  several  institutions  under  Francke's  direction 
amounted  to  four  thousand  two  hundred  and  seventy- 
three. 

Besides  the  direction  of  ah1  these  institutions,  a  work 
sufficient  to  overwhelm  an  ordinary  man,  Francke  was 
active  in  other  ways.  His  pastoral  duties  were  faith- 
fully performed ;  he  founded  a  printing-office  that  sent 
forth  before  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century  a  million 
and  a  half  of  Bibles  and  a  million  copies  of  the  New 
Testament ;  under  the  patronage  of  the  King  of  Den- 
mark, Frederick  IV.,  he  established  a  mission  in  India 
that  continued  over  a  hundred  years.  Through  the 
teachers  and  ministers  sent  forth  from  his  institutions, 
he  reached  all  parts  of  Europe.  Count  Zinzendorf,  the 
founder  of  the  Moravian  Brethren,  was  one  of  his  pupils. 
As  professor  in  the  University  of  Halle,  he  was  instru- 


FROM  THE  REFORMATION  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME. 

mental  in  effecting  useful  changes  in  the  courses  of 
study,  and  in  elevating  the  moral  tone  of  the  body  of 
students.  He  constantly  sought  their  conversion  and 
spiritual  development.  Theology  became  a  matter  of 
the  heart  as  well  as  of  the  head.  "  A  gram  of  living 
faith,"  Francke  says,  "  is  worth  more  than  a  pound  of 
historic  knowledge ;  and  a  drop  of  love,  than  an  ocean 
of  science." 

The  spirit  that  animated  Francke  in  his  vast  enter- 
prises is  well  worthy  of  our  consideration.  A  profound 
personal  piety  lay  at  the  basis  of  all  his  work.  He 
founded  his  institutions  with  a  firm  reliance  upon  God, 
and  depended  upon  prayer  to  bring  him  the  necessary 
help.  He  regarded  piety  as  the  most  essential  thing  in 
education.  He  emphasized  the  truth  that  education 
should  have  reference  to  the  student's  subsequent  voca- 
tion ;  he  increased  the  number  of  utilitarian  studies,  and 
laid  the  foundation  of  modern  practical  education. 

In  the  following  passages  Francke  expresses  his  views 
fully  and  clearly  in  regard  to  education :  "  Only  the 
truly  pious  man,"  he  says,  "  is  a  good  member  of  society. 
Without  sincere  piety  all  knowledge,  all  prudence,  all 
worldly  culture  is  more  hurtful  than  useful,  and  we  are 
never  secure  against  its  misuse.  Although  all  children 
are  not  depraved  to  the  same  degree,  yet  all  bear  the 
seed  of  depravity  within  them;  and,  hence,  a  funda- 
mental improvement  of  the  heart  must  always  be  labored 
for.  In  this  work  we  must  beware  of  fighting  against 
some  particular  faults  as  if  they  were  the  only  ones,  al- 
though many  deserve  especial  attention.  Also,  we  must 
not  lose  sight  of  the  peculiarities  of  each  character,  the 
differences  of  temperament.  .  .  .  Piety  agrees  with  all 


REACTION.  245 

states  and  conditions  into  which  man  may  come,  for 
every  condition  with  which  it  does  not  agree  becomes 
by  this  very  fact  unlawful.  It  does  not  exclude  pru- 
dence in  conduct,  but  this  must  always  be  subordinated 
to  godliness." 

"  Youth  needs  pleasure  and  recreation.  This  it  finds 
partly  in  physical  exercise,  partly  in  pleasant  and  at  the 
same  time  useful  employments,  especially  in  mechanical 
employments ;  partly  in  the  examination  of  new  and  in- 
teresting objects  of  nature  and  art.  In  all  instruction 
we  must  keep  the  pupil's  station  and  future  calling  in 
mind,  but  to  all  classes  alike  is  piety  necessary.  Hence, 
it  must  remain  in  all  schools  the  chief  matter,  the  prin- 
cipal lesson.  In  the  instruction  of  those  who  are  des- 
tined to  unprofessional  employments  and  trades,  the 
most  important  thing  after  religion  is  an  acquaintance 
with  the  indispensable  arts  of  reading,  writing,  and  reck- 
oning ;  but  the  elements  of  other  branches  of  knowledge 
should  not  be  neglected,  especially  the  elements  of  natu- 
ral science,  geography,  history,  and  government,  which, 
however,  are  to  be  brought  forward  incidentally  and 
later." 

The  following  rules  are  taken  from  Francke's  in- 
structions to  his  teachers  upon  the  manner  of  exercising 
school-discipline.  They  exhibit  his  clear  pedagogical  in- 
sight, his  piety,  and  his  sympathy  and  love  for  children  : 

1.  In  exercising  discipline,  which  is  necessary  and 
conformable  to  the  will  of  God,  the  teacher  should  pray 
God  first  of  all  to  give  him  the  necessary  wisdom. 

2.  As  most  teachers  seek  to  correct  children  by  rig- 
orous punishment  rather  than  by  gaining  their  love 
through  patience,  forbearance,  and  affection ;   and,  as 


246     FROM  THE  REFORMATION  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME. 

young  teachers  in  particular  are  lacking  in  paternal  so- 
licitude and  Christian  gentleness,  they  ought  to  suppli- 
cate the  Lord,  without  ceasing,  to  fill  them  with  love  for 
the  young  who  are  confided  to  them,  and  to  deliver  them 
from  all  harshness  and  carnal  sufficiency. 

3.  The  teacher  should  learn  to  govern  himself,  with- 
out which  he  can  not  properly  govern  others. 

4.  A  teacher  should  maintain  discipline  over  his  pu- 
pils, and  should  exhort  and  punish  them  when  necessary ; 
nevertheless,  education  should  not  be  hard  and  severe, 
but  gentle  and  paternaL 

5.  A  teacher  ought  never  to  punish  a  child  in  anger. 

6.  A  teacher  ought  not  to  be  ill-humored,  but  cordial 
and  kind,  like  a  father. 

Y.  Children  ought  not  to  be  punished  for  little  faults 
inherent  in  their  age,  but  should  be  encouraged  to  be 
more  careful. 

8.  A  Christian  teacher  should  beware  of  becoming 
the  occasion  of  disorder  which  he  is  to  punish. 

9.  Children  should  not  be  abused  with  harsh  epi- 
thets.    It  is  contrary  to  the  spirit  of  Christianity. 

10.  A  child  ought  never  to  be  scolded  because  it  can 
not  understand.     If  it  is  dull  of  comprehension,  the 
teacher  should  redouble  his  efforts  in  its  behalf. 

11.  A  teacher  should  study  the  disposition  of  his  pu- 
pils, as  delicate  and  gentle  natures  are  not  to  be  treated 
like  coarse  and  hardened  natures. 

12.  In  avoiding  too  great  severity  the  teacher  should 
not  fall  into  the  opposite  extreme,  and  become  the  sport 
of  the  children. 

13.  With  youth  over  fifteen  years  of  age  the  teacher 
should  abstain  from  harsh  words,  threats,  and  blows,  by 


ABSTRACT  HUMAN  EDUCATION.  247 

which  they  may  become  imbittered.  It  is  better  to  take 
them  separately,  talk  to  them  kindly — sometimes  even 
pray  with  them.  If  these  means  are  fruitless,  let  them 
be  brought  before  the  school  board,  or  punished  in  the 
presence  of  a  colleague. 

Francke's  long  and  useful  life  was  crowned  with  a 
fitting  close.  He  bore  his  last  sickness  with  Christian 
resignation.  The  words  of  the  patriarch  Jacob  were 
often  upon  his  lips,  "  Lord,  I  wait  for  thy  salvation." 
At  the  last  hour  his  wife,  the  faithful  companion  of 
many  years,  stood  by  his  side.  "  The  Saviour  will  be 
with  you,"  she  said.  "  There  is  no  doubt  of  it,"  he  re- 
plied. These  were  his  last  words;  and,  in  the  midst 
of  the  hymns  and  prayers  of  assembled  friends,  he  peace- 
fully fell  asleep  June  8,  1727. 


6.  ABSTRACT  HUMAN  EDUCATION. 

The  eighteenth  century  witnessed  a  new  movement 
which  has  been  characterized  as  abstract  human  educa- 
tion.* In  general,  it  ignores  or  rejects  revealed  relig- 
ion, and  bases  its  educational  principles  on  the  purely 
natural.  Though  as  one-sided  as  the  theological  tend- 
ency, it  has  the  great  merit  of  stimulating  a  careful 
study  of  man  in  the  interests  of  correct  educational 
methods.  In  this  way  it  rendered  invaluable  service 
to  the  cause  of  educational  progress. 

This  movement  exhibited  two  entirely  different  tend- 
encies—  the  realistic  tendency,  which  emphasized  the 
study  of  Nature,  and  the  humanistic  tendency,  which 

*  The  German  expression  is  "  abstract  men&chlicke  Erziehung." 


24:8     FROM  THE  REFORMATION  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME. 

emphasized  the  study  of  words.  Both  of  these  tenden- 
cies, which  had  been  in  conflict  to  a  greater  or  less 
degree  during  the  preceding  century,  agreed  in  elimi- 
nating revealed  religion  from  education. 

This  dual  movement  admits  of  an  easy  explanation. 
In  the  great  process  of  human  development  extremes 
tend  to  beget  extremes.  The  path  of  human  progress  is 
zigzag.  Throughout  the  seventeenth  century,  which  we 
have  just  considered,  a  mere  formal  religion  remained 
in  the  ascendency.  It  continued  the  controlling  factor 
in  education,  in  spite  of  the  attacks  of  the  pietists  and 
educational  reformers.  It  long  thwarted  the  confident 
expectations  of  Comenius.  But  a  religion,  which  has 
lost  its  vital  power,  can  not  hold  a  permanent  ascend- 
ency over  the  world.  Its  weakness  exposes  it  to  attack. 
A  skeptical  movement,  known  as  Deism,  arose  in  Eng- 
land, and  gradually  extended  over  the  whole  of  Europe. 
Its  principal  tenets,  as  given  by  Kahnis,  are  the  follow- 
ing :  "  Christianity  is  a  positive  religion,  like  Judaism 
and  Mohammedanism.  It  is  a  prejudice  which  the 
Christians  have,  in  common  with  the  Jews  and  Moham- 
medans, to  imagine  that  their  religion  is  the  only  true 
one.  That  which  separates  these  religions  is  the  posi- 
tive, but  that  is  merely  the  unessential — the  shell.  In 
the  main  point,  all  positive  religions  are  at  one.  This 
main  point  is  natural  religion — the  religion  of  sound 
common  sense."  Deism  rejected  the  supernatural  in 
religion.  As  its  principles  had  no  other  than  a  specula- 
tive basis,  they  were  lacking  in  certainty  and  authority, 
and  in  many  cases  prepared  the  way  for  the  grossest 
atheism.  From  the  deistic  or  skeptical  stand-point  the 
current  education  of  the  time,  unduly  controlled  by  nar- 


ABSTRACT  HUMAN  EDUCATION.  249 

row  ecclesiastical  influences,  was  judged  defective.  Edu- 
cational reformers  representing  the  skeptical  tendency 
arose,  and  new  movements  were  inaugurated. 

(A.)  ROUSSEAU. 

There  are  few  men  who  have  exerted  a  greater  influ- 
ence upon  education  than  the  celebrated  author.  Jean- 
Jacques  Rousseau.  He  was  born  at  Geneva,  in  1712,  the 
son  of  a  poor  watchmaker.  As  a  child  he  was  feeble  in 
body  and  shy  in  disposition,  but  at  the  same  time  he  was 
endowed  with  remarkable  vivacity  in  thought  and  feeling. 
He  was  exceedingly  fond  of  reading,  in  which  he  was 
encouraged  by  his  father;  and,  among  other  works, 
many  of  which  were  worthless,  he  early  devoured  Bos- 
suet,  Ovid,  and  Plutarch.  "  Thus  began  to  be  formed 
within  me,"  he  says,  "  that  heart,  at  once  so  proud  and 
so  tender,  that  effeminate  but  yet  indomitable  character 
which,  ever  oscillating  between  weakness  and  courage, 
between  indulgence  and  virtue,  has  to  the  last  placed 
me  in  contradiction  with  myself,  and  has  brought  it  to 
pass  that  abstinence  and  enjoyment,  pleasure  and  wis- 
dom, have  alike  eluded  me." 

It  is  not  worth  while  to  follow  him  through  the  un- 
important events  of  his  life.  His  boyhood  was  by  no 
means  worthy  of  imitation ;  and  in  his  "  Confessions,"  a 
work  written  with  the  utmost  frankness  late  in  life,  he 
does  not  attempt  to  conceal  theft  and  lying.  He  ran 
away  from  an  engraver  to  whom  he  had  been  appren- 
ticed, and  during  the  remainder  of  his  life  he  was  a 
wanderer  who  enjoyed  but  temporary  seasons  of  repose. 
Throughout  his  career  he  was  subject  to  petty  misfort- 
unes and  persecutions,  but  his  immoralities  repress  our 


250     FROM  THE  REFORMATION  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME. 

sympathy  for  his  sufferings  and  lessen  our  admiration 
for  his  genius.  His  life  was  a  singular  paradox.  "  There 
is  in  our  literary  history,"  says  an  interesting  French 
author,  "a  celebrated  writer  who  offers  the  singular 
combination  of  grandeur  in  his  works  and  of  baseness  in 
his  conduct ;  it  is  Jean- Jacques  Kousseau.  Full  of  en- 
thusiasm for  the  beautiful  and  the  good,  he  defended 
with  invincible  logic  and  passionate  eloquence  the  eter- 
nal principles  of  justice  and  morality,  and  he  committed 
the  most  shameful  and  culpable  acts.  This  man,  who 
wrote  admirable  pages  upon  domestic  affection,  friend- 
ship, and  gratitude,  chose  a  companion  unworthy  of 
him,  placed  his  children  in  a  foundling  hospital,  and 
showed  himself  unjust  and  harsh  toward  his  friends,  and 
ungrateful  toward  his  benefactors.  And  all  the  time 
doing  wrong,  he  believed  himself  moral,  because  he  loved 
virtue.  '  I  do  evil,'  he  said,  '  but  I  love  good.  My  heart 

is  pure.' " 

Kousseau  has  exerted  his  influence  upon  education 
through  a  single  work,  half  treatise  and  half  romance. 
It  is,  as  he  himself  says,  "  a  collection  of  thoughts  and 
observations,  without  order  and  almost  without  connec- 
tion." It  is  entitled  "  Smile,  or  concerning  Education." 
In  many  respects  a  radical  book,  it  is  flung  defiantly  in 
the  face  of  prevalent  usage.  "  Go  directly  contrary  to 
custom,"  he  says,  "  and  you  will  nearly  always  be  right." 
The  work  abounds  in  mingled  truth  and  error,  and  needs 
to  be  read  with  great  discrimination ;  but  many  of  ^ its 
truths  are  fundamental,  and  ever  since  their  publication 
they  have  been  gradually  forcing  an  entrance  into  edu- 
cational practice.  "Not  Rousseau's  individual  rules," 
says  the  great  German  Kichter,  "many  of  which  may 


ABSTRACT  HUMAN  EDUCATION.  £51 

be  erroneous  without  injury  to  the  whole,  but  the  spirit 
of  education  which  fills  and  animates  the  work  has 
shaken  to  their  foundations  and  purified  all  the  school- 
rooms, and  even  the  nurseries  in  Europe.  In  no  pre- 
vious work  on  education  was  the  ideal  so  richly  and 
beautifully  combined  with  actual  observation  as  in  his." 

Rousseau,  was  largely  indebted  to  his  predecessors, 
especially  to  Locke,  whom  he  frequently  quotes.  The 
two  fundamental  truths  which  have  perhaps  exerted  the 
widest  influence  are  these :  1.  Nature  is  to  be  studied 
and  followed.  2.  Education  is  an  unbroken  unity,  ex- 
tending from  early  childhood  to  maturity.  It  is  true 
that  both  of  these  principles  had  been  advocated  by  Co- 
menius,  but  it  was  through  the  charm  of  Rousseau's 
work  that  they  made  the  widest  impression  upon  the 
educational  thinking  of  Europe.  Along  with  positions 
wholly  indefensible,  Rousseau  urges,  in  admirable  style, 
many  of  the  reforms  with  which  we  are  already  familiar, 
and  which  have  won  our  hearty  approval.  His  stand- 
point, as  presented  in  the  opening  paragraph  of  "  Emile," 
is  undoubtedly  wrong.  "Everything  is  good,"  he  says, 
"  as  it  comes  from  the  hands  of  the  Creator ;  everything 
degenerates  in  the  hands  of  man.  He  forces  one  coun- 
try to  bring  forth  the  productions  of  another ;  one  tree 
to  bear  the  fruits  of  another ;  he  mingles  and  confuses 
climates,  elements,  seasons;  he  mutilates  his  dog,  his 
horse,  his  slave ;  he  overturns  everything,  he  disfigures 
everything ;  he  loves  deformity,  monsters ;  he  wishes 
nothing  as  Nature  has  made  it,  not  even  man;  it  is 
necessary  to  train  him  like  a  riding-horse ;  to  conform 
him  to  a  model  like  a  tree  in  the  garden." 

Rousseau  is  thus  seen  to  be  hostile  to  the  established 


252     FROM  THE  REFORMATION  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME. 

order  of  tilings.  Society  at  the  French  capital  had  be- 
come exceedingly  artificial  and  corrupt.  Its  shallow 
conventionalities  and  irrational  customs  irritated  Rous- 
seau, and  with  an  exaggeration  natural  to  him  he  made 
society  at  large  the  object  of  indiscriminate  attack.  He 
maintains  that  civilization  fosters  vice,  that  the  arts  and 
sciences  have  been  born  of  sin,  and  hence  he  seeks  a 
sovereign  remedy  for  existing  evils  in  a  return  to  a  state 
of  nature.  "  Rousseau  did  not  understand,"  says  Paroz, 
"or  rather  he  did  not  believe,  that  the  evil  reigning 
among  mankind  was  anterior  to  civilization,  and  that 
civilization  is  dangerous  only  as  it  departs  from  the  vivi- 
fying and  elevating  principles  of  Christianity.  It  is 
from  the  heart,  and  not  from  civilization,  that  the  bad 
thoughts  and  bad  actions  which  trouble  humanity  have 
their  issue;  and  to  elevate  man  we  need  a  principle 
which  renews  and  changes  the  heart.  Every  other  means 
is  insufficient ;  after  having  taken  civilization  from  man 
to  keep  him  from  doing  evil,  it  would  still  be  necessary 
to  deprive  him  of  his  limbs,  and  at  last  of  life  itself." 

With  the  intention  of  following  Nature,  Rousseau 
carries  Simile,  his  hero,  through  five  periods  of  develop- 
ment :  the  first  embraces  his  infancy,  the  second  extends 
to  his  twelfth  year,  the  third  to  his  fifteenth,  the  fourth 
to  his  twentieth,  and  the  fifth  includes  his  marriage. 
To  each  of  these  periods  a  book  is  devoted,  setting  forth 
the  matter  and  method  of  training  in  detail. 

Rousseau  maintained  that  child-nature  should  be  in- 
vestigated as  the  basis  of  all  correct  training.  "  People," 
he  says,  "  do  not  understand  childhood.  "With  the  false 
notions  we  have  of  it,  the  further  we  go  the  more  we 
blunder.  The  wisest  apply  themselves  to  what  it  is  im- 


ABSTRACT   HUMAN   EDUCATION.  253 

portant  for  men  to  know  without  considering  what  chil- 
dren are  in  a  condition  to  learn.  They  are  always  seek- 
ing the  man  in  the  child,  without  reflecting  what  he  is 
before  he  can  be  a  man."  "Nature,"  he  says  again, 
"  requires  children  to  be  children  before  they  are  men. 
If  we  wish  to  pervert  this  order,  we  shall  produce  for- 
ward fruits,  having  neither  ripeness  nor  taste,  and  cer- 
tain soon  to  decay ;  we  shall  have  young  professors  and 
old  children.  Childhood  has  its  manner  of  seeing,  per- 
ceiving, and  thinking  peculiar  to  itself ;  nothing  is  more 
absurd  than  our  being  anxious  to  substitute  our  own  in 
its  stead." 

The  period  of  childhood  should  be  devoted  to  physi- 
cal development  and  the  training  of  the  senses.  "  The 
child  must  learn,"  says  Rousseau,  "  to  feel  the  warmth 
and  coldness,  the  hardness,  softness,  and  weight  of  bodies ; 
to  judge  of  their  figure,  magnitude,  and  other  sensible 
qualities,  by  seeing,  touching,  hearing,  and  particularly 
by  comparing  the  sight  with  the  touch,  and  judging,  by 
means  of  the  eye,  of  the  sensation  which  objects  would 
make  upon  the  lingers." 

Rousseau  emphasized  the  importance  of  a  knowledge 
of  things  as  contrasted  with  a  knowledge  of  words. 
"The  abuse  of  books,"  he  Bays,  "is  destructive  to 
knowledge.  Imagining  ourselves  to  know  everything 
we  read  we  believe  ourselves  released  from  learn- 
ing it.  Too  much  reading  serves  only  to  make  us 
presumptuous  blockheads.  Of  all  the  ages  in  which 
literature  has  nourished,  reading  was  never  so  universal 
as  in  the  present,  nor  were  men  in  general  ever  so 
ignorant." 

Rousseau  holds  to  the  developing  idea  in  education, 


254     FROM  TnE  REFORMATION  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME. 

and  assails  the  practice  of  imparting  knowledge  to  the 
passive  pupil  by  the  weight  of  authority.  "Another 
advantage,"  he  says,  "resulting  from  this  method  of 
learning  for  ourselves  is,  that  we  do  not  accustom  our- 
selves to  a  servile  submission  to  the  authority  of  others ; 
but,  by  exercising  our  reason,  grow  every  day  more  in- 
genious in  the  discovery  of  the  relation  of  things,  in  con- 
necting our  ideas  and  inventing  instruments ;  whereas, 
by  adopting  all  that  is  told  us,  the  mind  grows  dull  and 
indifferent,  as  a  man,  who  is  always  dressed  and  served 
by  his  servants  and  drawn  by  his  horses,  loses  at  length 
the  activity  and  use  of  his  limbs." 

The  end  of  education  is  to  develop  a  complete  man. 
"  In  the  order  of  Nature,"  says  Rousseau,  "  all  men  are 
equal,  their  common  vocation  is  the  estate  of  man ;  and 
whoever  is  well  brought  up  for  that  will  not  fail  in  any- 
thing belonging  to  it.  It  is  a  matter  of  little  importance 
to  me  whether  my  pupil  be  destined  for  arms,  for  the 
Church,  or  for  the  bar.  Before  the  vocation  assigned 
him  by  his  parents,  Nature  calls  him  to  human  life.  To 
live  is  the  business  I  wish  to  teach  him.  When  he 
leaves  my  hands  I  acknowledge  that  he  will  be  neither 
magistrate,  soldier,  nor  priest ;  he  will  be  first  of  all  a 
man— all  that  a  man  ought  to  be  he  can  be ;  and,  though 
fortune  change,  he  will  be  prepared  for  every  condi- 
tion." 

With  regard  to  female  education,  Rousseau's  views 
were  not  broad.  "All  the  education  of  women,"  he 
says,  "  ought  to  be  relative  to  men.  To  please  them,  to 
make  themselves  loved  by  them,  to  bring  them  up  when 
they  are  little,  to  care  for  them  when  they  are  grown 
up,  to  counsel  them,  to  console  them,  to  render  their 


ABSTRACT   HUMAN  EDUCATION.  255 

lives  agreeable  and  pleasant — such  have  been  the  duties 
of  women  in  all  ages." 

It  is  difficult  to  resist  the  temptation  unduly  to  mul- 
tiply quotations  from  this  brilliant  book.  But  we  con- 
clude our  study  with  the  well-known  and  beautiful  trib- 
ute which  Rousseau,  deist  though  he  was,  pays  to  Christ 
and  his  gospel.  "  I  confess  also,"  he  says,  "  that  the 
majesty  of  the  Scriptures  astonishes  me,  that  the  purity 
of  the  gospel  speaks  to  my  heart.  Look  at  the  books  of 
the  philosophers,  with  all  their  pomp ;  how  insignificant 
in  comparison  with  it !  Is  it  possible  that  a  book  at 
once  so  sublime  and  so  simple  is  the  work  of  men  ?  Is 
it  possible  that  he  whose  history  it  contains  is  himself 
only  a  man  ?  Is  that  the  tone  of  an  enthusiast  or  am- 
bitious sectary  ?  What  gentleness,  what  purity  in  his 
manners !  What  touching  grace  in  his  instructions ! 
What  elevation  in  his  maxims  !  What  profound  wisdom 
in  his  discourses  1  What  presence  of  mind,  what  deli- 
cacy and  justice  in  his  replies  !  What  control  over  his 
passions  !  Where  is  the  man,  where  is  the  philosopher, 
that  knows  how  to  live,  suffer,  and  die  without  weak- 
ness and  ostentation  ?  .  .  .  The  death  of  Socrates,  phi- 
losophizing tranquilly  with  his  friends,  is  the  most  de- 
sirable that  can  be  wished ;  that  of  Jesus  expiring  in 
agony,  insulted,  jeered,  cursed  by  a  whole  people,  is  the 
most  horrible  that  can  be  feared.  Socrates,  as  he  took 
the  poisoned  cup,  blessed  him  that  tearfully  presented 
it ;  Jesus,  in  the  midst  of  a  terrible  punishment,  prays 
for  his  unrelenting  executioners.  Yes,  if  the  life  and 
death  of  Socrates  are  those  of  a  philosopher,  the  life  and 
death  of  Jesus  are  those  of  a  God  1 " 


256     FROM  THE  REFORMATION  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME. 
(B.)   THE   PHILANTHROPE*. 

Kousseau  was  only  a  theorizer  in  education.  He  did 
not  undertake  to  put  his  views  into  practice.  This  was 
left  for  a  group  of  educators  who,  from  the  name  of  the 
first  school,  are  known  in  educational  history  as  philan- 
thropinists.  Most  prominent  of  these  were  Basedow, 
Sakman,  and  Campe.  Kecognizing  the  defects  of  exist- 
ing schools,  they  all  sought  to  carry  out  practically  the 
reforms  proposed  by  Comenius,  Locke,  and  above  all  by 
Eousseau.  In  this  undertaking  they  had  the  sympathy 
of  a  number  of  eminent  men,  among  whom  the  philoso- 
pher Kant  deserves  especial  mention. 

The  current  training  of  children  has  been  thus  por- 
trayed by  Kaumer :  "  Youth  was  then,  for  most  children, 
a  sorrowful  period ;  the  instruction  hard  and  heartlessly 
severe.  Grammar  was  beat  into  the  memory,  and  like- 
wise portions  of  Scripture  and  poetry.  A  common  pun- 
ishment at  school  was  to  learn  by  heart  the  one  hundred 
and  nineteenth  Psalm.  School-rooms  were  gloomily 
dark.  No  one  thought  that  youth  could  find  pleasure 
in  work,  or  that  they  had  eyes  for  anything  but  reading 
and  writing.  The  profligate  age  of  Louis  XIV.  imposed 
upon  the  poor  children  of  the  higher  classes  hair  curled 
by  the  barber  and  smeared  with  powder  and  pomade, 
braided  coats,  knee-breeches,  silk  stockings,  and  a  dag- 
ger at  the  side — for  active,  lively  children  the  severest 
torture." 

The  philanthropinists  set  themselves  against  these 
evils.  The  key-note  of  their  system  was  everything  ac- 
cording to  nature.  Some  of  its  fundamental  ideas,  evi- 
dently drawn  from  Rousseau's  work,  are  thus  set  forth 


ABSTRACT   HUMAN  EDUCATION.  257 

by  Basedow :  "  You  should  attend  to  nature  in  your 
children  far  more  than  to  art.  The  elegant  manners 
and  usages  of  the  world  are,  for  the  most  part,  contrary 
to  nature.  These  come  of  themselves  in  later  years. 
Treat  children  like  children,  that  they  may  remain  the 
longer  uncorrupted.  A  boy,  whose  acutest  faculties  are 
his  senses,  and  who  has  no  perception  of  anything  ab- 
stract, must  first  of  all  be  made  acquainted  with  the 
world  as  it  presents  itself  to  the  senses.  Let  this  be 
shown  him  in  Nature  itself,  or,  where  this  is  impossible, 
in  faithful  drawings  and  models.  He  can  thus,  even  in 
play,  learn  how  the  various  objects  are  named.  Co- 
menius  alone  has  pointed  out  the  right  road  in  this  mat- 
ter. By  all  means  reduce  the  wretched  exercises  of  the 
memory." 

Basedow,  as  the  founder  of  the  Philanthropin,  is 
worthy  of  some  consideration.  He  was  born  at  Ham- 
burg, in  1723.  His  youth  was  somewhat  irregular.  He 
studied  theology  at  Leipsic,  but  his  skeptical  views  pre- 
vented his  ordination  to  the  ministry.  He  turned  to 
teaching.  Having  advocated  educational  reform  in  a 
work  published  in  1771,  from  which  the  extract  above 
is  taken,  he  was  received  under  the  patronage  of  the 
Prince  of  Dessau,  and  placed  in  charge  of  a  school  in 
which  he  was  to  exemplify  his  theories.  His  purpose  is 
announced  in  the  following  appeal  made  in  1776,  two 
years  after  the  founding  of  the  Philanthropin.  "  Send 
your  children,"  he  says,  "to  a  happy  youthful  life  in 
successful  studies.  This  affair  is  not  Catholic,  Lutheran, 
or  Reformed,  but  Christian.  .  .  .  "We  are  philanthro- 
pists, or  cosmopolites.  The  sovereignty  of  Russia  or 
Denmark  is  not,  in  our  teaching  and  judgment,  placed 


258     FROM  THE  REFORMATION  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME. 

after  the  freedom  of  Switzerland.  .  .  .  The  end  of  edu- 
cation must  be  to  form  the  European,  whose  life  may  be 
as  harmless,  useful,  and  contented  as  education  can  make 
it.  It  must,  therefore,  be  provided  (1)  that  little  vexa- 
tion, pain,  and  disease  await  him,  and  (2)  that  he  accus- 
tom himself  to  the  careful  enjoyment  of  the  good.  .  .  . 
The  art  of  all  arts  is  virtue  and  contentment.  But  few 
exercises  for  the  virtues,  as  they  should  be  employed  in 
education,  have  yet  been  invented.  Hear,  ye  wise  and 
philanthropic  authors  !  A  plan  for  the  methodical  ex- 
ercise of  the  virtues  in  families  and  schools  is  one  of 
the  few  weighty  books  to  benefit  all  mankind.  If  we 
were  rich,  we  would  offer  a  prize  of  ten  thousand  dollars 
for  the  best  book  of  this  kind  appearing  within  two 
years. 

"  For  the  paternal  religion  of  each  pupil,  the  clergy 
of  the  place  will  provide ;  but  natural  religion  and  mo- 
rality is  the  chief  part  of  philosophy,  which  we  will  see 
to  ourselves.  In  the  Philanthropin  faith  in  God  as  the 
Creator,  Preserver,  and  Lord  of  the  universe  is  first  in- 
culcated. .  .  .  Little  memorizing  is  done  with  us.  The 
pupils  are  not  forced  to  study,  not  even  by  reproof. 
Yet  we  promise,  by  the  excellence  of  our  method  and 
its  agreement  with  the  philanthropinistic  education  and 
mode  of  life,  to  make  double  the  progress  in  study  that 
is  common  in  schools  and  gymnasia.  And  especially  do 
we  promise  much  culture  of  sound  reason  through  the 
use  of  a  truly  philosophical  mode  of  thinking." 

The  following  extract,  taken  from  an  account  of  a 
visit  to  the  Philanthropin,  will  give  us  some  idea  of  the 
novelty  and  freedom  of  the  methods  pursued.  The  pu- 
pils were  plainly  dressed ;  their  hair  was  cut  short ;  their 


ABSTRACT  HUMAN  EDUCATION.  259 

throats  were  quite  open,  the  shirt-collar  falling  back  over 
the  coat.  "  The  little  ones,"  says  the  writer  of  the  ac- 
count in  question,  "  have  gone  through  the  oddest  per- 
formances. They  play  at  <  word-of -command.'  Eight 
or  ten  stand  in  a  line  like  soldiers,  and  Herr  Wolke  *  is 
officer.  He  gives  the  word  in  Latin,  and  they  must  do 
whatsoever  he  says.  For  instance,  when  he  says,  '  Clau- 
dite  oculos?  they  all  shut  their  eyes;  when  he  says, 
4  CircumspiciteJ  they  look  about  them ;  '  Imitamini 
sartorem?  they  all  sew  like  tailors ;  *  Imitamini  suto- 
remj  they  draw  the  waxed  thread  like  the  cobblers. 
Herr  Wolke  gives  a  thousand  different  commands  in  the 
drollest  fashion. 

"  Another  game,  '  the  hiding-game,'  I  will  teach  you. 
Some  one  writes  a  name  and  hides  it  from  the  children 
— the  name  of  some  part  of  the  body,  or  of  a  plant,  or 
animal,  or  metal — and  the  children  guess  what  it  is. 
Whoever  guesses  right  gets  an  apple  or  a  piece  of  cake. 
One  of  the  visitors  wrote  intestina,  and  told  the  children 
it  was  a  part  of  the  body.  Then  the  guessing  began. 
One  guessed  caput,  another  nasus,  another  os,  another 
manus,  pes,  digiti,  pectus,  and  so  forth,  for  a  long  time ; 
but  one  of  them  hit  it  at  last.  Next  Herr  "Wolke  wrote 
the  name  of  a  beast,  a  quadruped.  Then  came  the 
guesses — leo,  ursus,  camelus,  elepkas,  and  so  on,  till  one 
guessed  right ;  it  was  mus.  Then  a  town  was  written, 
and  they  guessed  Lisbon,  Madrid,  Paris,  London,  till  a 
child  won  with  St.  Petersburg. 

"They  had  another  game,  which  was  this:  Herr 
Wolke  gave  the  command  in  Latin,  and  they  imitated 
the  noises  of  different  animals,  and  made  us  laugh  till 

*  One  of  Basedow's  assistants. 


260  FROM  THE  REFORMATION  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME. 

we  were  tired.     They  roared  like  lions,  crowed  like 
cocks,  mewed  like  cats,  just  as  they  were  bid." 

The  Philanthropin  acquired  a  wide  reputation,  and 
it  was  visited  by  persons  interested  in  education  from 
various  parts  of  Europe.  The  impression  generally  made 
was  favorable,  yet  the  results  somehow  did  not  answer 
to  Basedow's  confident  manifesto.  It  seems  that  he 
himself  was  poorly  adapted  to  carry  on  such  an  institu- 
tion. His  methods,  well  suited  to  young  children,  were 
prolonged  into  the  period  when  more  advanced  and  more 
systematic  work  should  have  been  done.  His  teaching 
did  not  keep  pace  with  the  development  of  his  pupils, 
and  hence  failed  to  fulfill  the  promise  it  had  made  in 
the  beginning.  The  Philanthropin,  which  had  natu- 
rally many  opponents,  was  closed  before  the  end  of  the 
century,  yet  not  without  leaving  several  similar  institu- 
tions to  survive  it,  through  which  it  continued  to  exert 
a  salutary  influence  upon  education. 

Kant,  who  had  at  first  predicted  great  results  from 
the  Philanthropin,  was  sadly  disappointed ;  and  in  his 
"  Padagogik "  he  refers  to  it  in  an  interesting  passage. 
"One  fancies  indeed,"  he  says,  "that  experiments  in 
education  would  not  be  necessary,  and  that  we  might 
judge  by  the  understanding  whether  any  plan  would 
turn  out  well  or  ill.  But  this  is  a  great  mistake.  Ex- 
perience shows  that  often  in  our  experiments  we  get 
quite  opposite  results  from  what  we  had  anticipated. 
We  see,  too,  that,  since  experiments  are  necessary,  it  is 
not  in  the  power  of  one  generation  to  form  a  complete 
plan  of  education.  The  only  experimental  school  which, 
to  some  extent,  made  a  beginning  in  clearing  the  road 
was  the  Institute  at  Dessau.  This  praise  at  least  must 


ABSTRACT   HUMAN   EDUCATION.  £61 

be  allowed  it,  notwithstanding  the  many  faults  which 
could  be  brought  up  against  it — faults  which  are  sure  to 
show  themselves  when  we  come  to  the  results  of  our 
experiments,  and  which  merely  prove  that  fresh  experi- 
ments are  necessary.  It  was  the  only  school  in  which 
the  teachers  had  liberty  to  work  according  to  their  own 
methods  and  schemes,  and  where  they  were  in  free  com- 
munication both  among  themselves  and  with  all  learned 
men  throughout  Germany." 

(C.)   THE   HUMANISTS. 

It  is  now  time  to  consider  the  humanistic  movement 
of  the  eighteenth  century,  which  made  the  study  of 
classical  antiquity  the  basis  of  all  culture.  It  was  a  re- 
action in  part  against  the  ecclesiasticism  which  fostered 
the  ancient  languages  only  for  the  sake  of  theology,  and 
in  part  against  the  realistic  school  represented  by  Co- 
menius,  Rousseau,  and  especially  the  philanthropiniste. 

The  distinguishing  characteristic  of  the  humanists  is 
the  prominence  which  they  give  to  Latin  and  Greek. 
These  languages  are  made  the  basis  of  education ;  and 
the  attempt  is  made  to  justify  this  prominence  by  their 
value  as  a  means  of  culture,  and  also  as  studies  of  prac- 
tical utility.  It  is  maintained  that  the  study  of  the  an- 
cient languages  is  unequaled  in  disciplinary  worth,  and 
that  the  literatures  of  Greece  and  Rome  contain  incom- 
parable models  of  style.  Hence,  the  study  of  Latin  and 
Greek  gives  strength  to  the  faculties  and  cultivation  to 
the  taste.  It  is  further  claimed  that  the  study  of  Latin 
and  Greek  possesses  great  practical  worth,  inasmuch  as 
it  furnishes  a  valuable  acquaintance  with  English  ety- 
mology and  general  grammar,  leads  to  a  vast  storehouse 


262     FROM  THE  REFORMATION  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME. 

of  knowledge,  and  gives  a  better  understanding  of  the 
present,  which  has  its  roots  in  the  past.  The  humanists 
are  unsympathetic  with  the  present ;  they  depreciate  the 
science,  literature,  and  culture  of  modern  times,  and 
scarcely  allow  to  Christian  civilization  any  superiority 
over  that  of  paganism  in  literary  productions. 

The  fundamental  principles  of  the  humanists  have 
been  given  by  Karl  Schmidt :  "  1.  The  ancient  languages 
are  the  foundation  of  all  true  culture ;  a  knowledge  of 
them  makes  the  scholar ;  hence  they  must  lie  at  the 
basis  of  all  instruction,  especially  in  the  higher  educa- 
tion. In  itself  considered,  the  study  of  language  is  a 
means  of  mental  culture,  and  hence  has  disciplinary 
value.  But  it  is  also  related  to  all  departments  of  hu- 
man learning.  Greek  and  Latin  writings  are  the  sources 
of  all  learning,  and  whoever  would  go  to  the  fountain- 
head  must  be  acquainted  with  these  languages.  The 
original  documents  of  religion,  Roman  jurisprudence, 
the  correct  principles  of  medicine,  philosophy,  the  prin- 
ciples and  examples  of  rhetoric  and  poetry,  history — all 
have  come  to  us  from  Greece  and  Rome.  ...  2.  The 
study  of  grammar  must  precede  that  of  philosophy,  his- 
tory, aesthetics.  Grammar  is  necessary  to  a  thorough 
knowledge  of  language.  The  method  used  in  teaching 
the  modern  languages  does  not  suit  with  the  ancient 
languages.  A  dead  language  is  well  spoken  only  by  a 
few.  This  ability  is  far  from  being  possessed  by  all 
good  philologians.  ...  3.  A  too  early  pursuit  of  the 
natural  sciences  is  unfavorable  to  a  thorough  acquisition 
of  languages,  for  the  time  given  to  the  latter  must  be 
brief  and  dependent — adequate  studies  in  them  being 
deferred  to  riper  years.  The  languages  belong  to  the 


ABSTRACT  HUMAN  EDUCATION.  263 

schools,  the  sciences  to  the  universities.  4.  It  is  a  mis. 
take  to  suppose  that  the  study  of  the  ancient  languages 
is  hurtful  to  practical  knowledge.  The  broadest  scholars 
have  the  greatest  respect  for  the  ancients.  It  is  not  easy 
to  name,  in  any  nation,  a  distinguished  author  or  scholar 
who  is  not  indebted  to  the  Greeks  and  Romans  for  his 
superior  attainments.  The  too  early  pursuit  of  all  pos- 
sible sciences  at  school  results  in  shallow  minds  that  are 
thorough  in  nothing.  There  is  no  thorough,  scientific 
culture  apart  from  the  study  of  language." 

The  contrast  between  humanism  and  philanthropin- 
ism  has  been  sharply  drawn  by  Niethammer,  a  prominent 
humanist  of  the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth  century : 
1.  Humanism  aims  at  general  culture ;  philanthropinism, 
at  utility.  2.  Humanism  seeks  to  exercise  and  strengthen 
the  mind ;  philanthropinism,  to  fill  it  with  useful  knowl- 
edge. 3.  Humanism  demands  but  few  subjects  of  study ; 
philanthropinism,  many.  4.  Humanism  exercises  the 
mind  with  ideas ;  philanthropinism,  with  things.  5.  Hu- 
manism deals  with  the  true,  the  beautiful,  and  the  good, 
the  elements  of  human  culture ;  philanthropinism,  with 
matter.  6.  Humanism  finds  its  subjects  of  study  in  clas- 
sical antiquity ;  philanthropinism,  in  the  present.  7.  Hu- 
manism regards  learning  as  a  serious  employment ;  phi- 
lanthropinism makes  it,  as  far  as  possible,  an  amusement. 
8.  Humanism  leads  to  thoroughness  in  a  few  things; 
philanthropinism,  to  superficiality  in  many.  9.  Human- 
ism cultivates  the  memory,  the  repository  of  knowledge ; 
philanthropinism  neglects  it. 

The  leading  representatives  of  the  humanistic  tend- 
ency in  the  eighteenth  century  were  Gesner,  Heyne, 
Ernesti,  and  Wolf.  They  pursued  the  study  of  the  an- 


264     FROM  THE  REFORMATION  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME. 

cient  classics  with  great  enthusiasm  and  success,  and 
succeeded  in  giving  Greek  a  place  by  the  side  of  Latin 
in  the  higher  education.  They  raised  Germany  to  the 
leadership  in  classical  learning — a  position  it  has  held 
ever  since.  The  college  curriculum  of  England  and 
America  has  been  largely  influenced  by  the  humanists. 
Their  influence. has  been  in  the  ascendant  for  a  century, 
and  it  is  only  within  the  past  few  years  that  a  strong 
reaction  has  set  in  and  forced  a  partial  readjustment  of 
the  college  course.  The  fundamental  principles  of  hu- 
manism have  been  brought  into  question,  and  subjected 
to  both  scientific  and  practical  tests.  Many  of  them  are 
found  to  be  in  part  or  wholly  fallacious.  Our  knowl- 
edge of  the  ancient  world  is  not  dependent  upon  an  ac- 
quaintance with  Latin  and  Greek.  It  is  best  obtained 
in  the  exhaustive  labors  of  great  historians  who  have 
embodied  the  results  of  their  investigations  in  our  own 
and  other  modern  tongues.  The  treasures  of  ancient 
literature — the  immortal  works  of  Yirgil  and  Homer,  of 
Cicero  and  Demosthenes,  of  Horace  and  ^schylus — are 
accessible  in  scholarly  translations,  which  we  can  read 
with  the  same  satisfaction  we  enjoy  in  perusing  the 
records  of  Moses,  the  songs  of  David,  or  the  arguments 
of  Paul.  And  the  knowledge  thus  gained  of  ancient  au- 
thors is  far  more  satisfactory  than  that  obtained  by  college- 
students,  who  struggle  through  inconsiderable  fragments 
with  grammar  and  dictionary.  While  there  may  be  ques- 
tion as  to  the  comparative  excellence  of  style  in  ancient 
and  modern  writing,  it  is  a  fact  beyond  reasonable  doubt 
that  the  vast  extension  of  the  field  of  knowledge  in 
modern  times — the  development  of  science,  the  marvels 
of  invention,  the  truths  of  Christianity — has  made  the 


ABSTRACT  HUMAN  EDUCATION.  265 

literature  of  the  past  two  hundred  and  fifty  years  greatly 
more  valuable  than  that  of  antiquity.  The  current  of 
thought,  like  a  river,  grows  broader  and  deeper  as  it 
flows  farther  from  its  source.  In  view  of  the  fact  that 
the  ancient  languages  are  not  the  parents  of  German 
and  English,  but  rather  elder  children  of  the  same  Aryan 
family,  it  is  coming  to  be  recognized  that  Latin  and 
Greek  have  no  monopoly  of  general  grammar,  and  that 
the  principles  underlying  the  structure  of  language  can 
be  readily  learned  from  the  modern  tongues.  As  the 
modern  languages  are  not  necessarily  subject  to  the 
abuse  of  illegitimate  helps,  and  as  they  call  into  active 
exercise  every  faculty  of  the  student's  mind  in  the  three- 
fold work  of  translating,  speaking,  and  hearing,  they  do 
not  appear  to  be  at  all  inferior  to  the  ancient  languages 
as  disciplinary  studies. 

It  is  now  felt,  too,  that  the  modern  world,  in  which 
we  are  to  play  our  parts,  should  not  be  ignored  in  our 
courses  of  instruction.  Considered  in  its  external  rela- 
tions, the  end  of  education  is  to  prepare  us  for  useful 
living.  Great  nations  are  moving  upon  the  stage  of  the 
nineteenth  century;  investigators  are  at  work  in  all 
Christian  lands ;  international  relations  are  becoming 
closer  each  year ;  the  whole  earth,  bound  together  by 
telegraphs  and  commercial  interests,  daily  challenges  our 
thought.  In  view  of  these  facts,  many  hold  that  it  is  not 
wise  to  require  a  young  man  to  spend  his  best  years  in 
Greece  and  Rome  as  a  preparation  for  intelligent  living  in 
the  nineteenth  century — the  grandest  that  the  world  has 
seen.  It  leaves  too  large  a  gap  between  the  college  and 
practical  life.  Hence  Latin  and  Greek,  notwithstanding 
the  stubborn  resistance  of  the  humanists,  are  being  gradu- 


266     FROM  THE  REFORMATION  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME. 

ally  retired  from  their  former  prominence  to  make  way 
for  the  mother -tongue,  the  natural  sciences,  and  the 
modern  languages. 

7.  EDUCATION  IN  THE  NINETEENTH  CENTURY. 

We  stand  at  the  opening  of  the  nineteenth  century, 
which  has  gathered  within  its  embrace  the  fruits  of  all 
the  labors,  struggles,  and  sufferings  of  the  past, 
field  of  knowledge  has  not  only  been  widened,  but  it 
has  been  brought  within  the  reach  of  the  masses.  Mighty 
forces  of  Nature  have  been  brought  into  subjection  to 
the  will  of  man,  and  are  made  obedient  servants  in  the 
cause  of  progress.  The  seeds  of  human  liberty,  sown  in 
blood  at  the  close  of  the  last  century,  have  sprung  up 
into  a  beautiful  harvest.  The  gospel  has  been  dissemi- 
nated throughout  nearly  the  whole  world.  The  senti- 
ment of  humanity  has  been  awakened,  and  a  serious 
calamity  in  any  quarter  instantly  awakens  a  general  and 
fruitful  sympathy.  Eeason  is  asserting  its  rights  in  so- 
ciety and  state,  in  science  and  art,  while  the  law  of  love 
is  more  and  more  prevailing  in  all  the  relations  of  life. 

(A.)   PESTALOZZI. 

At  the  threshold  of  this  century  stands  an  educator 
who  commands  both  our  admiration  and  love.  In  the 
long  line  of  educational  reformers  since  the  Reforma- 
tion there  is  perhaps  no  other  that  has  done  so  much  for 
popular  education.  The  devotion  of  his  life,  as  well  as 
the  truth  of  his  pedagogic  principles,  has  been  a  power 
in  the  educational  world.  He  was  not  distinguished  .for 


EDUCATION  IN  THE  NINETEENTH  CENTURY.        267 

learning  or  ability;  his  were  the  higher  talents  of  a 
noble  enthusiasm  for  the  elevation  of  our  race,  and  an 
inexhaustible  love  for  man.  Following  the  example  of 
our  divine  Master,  he  gave  himself  for  the  good  of 
others.  His  labors  and  self-sacrifices  were  not  in  vain. 
Through  the  noble  devotion  of  his  endeavors,  he  became 
the  medium  through  which  all  that  was  best  in  educa- 
tional theory  up  to  his  time  obtained  permanent  recog- 
nition. This  great  educator  was  John  Henry  Pestalozzi. 

The  labors  of  previous  educational  reformers  were 
not  altogether  fruitless.  Here  and  there  might  be  dis- 
cerned improvement  in  the  schools.  Some  enlightened 
rulers  directed  their  attention  to  the  subject  of  popular 
education ;  and,  as  early  as  1717,  Frederick  "William  I. 
of  Prussia  published  an  edict  of  compulsory  education. 
But,  in  general,  it  may  be  said  that  the  primary  schools 
of  the  eighteenth  century  remained  in  a  wretched  con- 
dition. The  teachers  were  unsuccessful  students,  dis- 
abled workmen,  discharged  soldiers,  and  common  serv- 
ants. They  were  held  in  light  esteem,  and  received  but 
little  pay.  Schools  were  by  no  means  general,  and  those 
that  were  opened  were  not  regularly  attended.  The 
common  people  were  lacking  in  educational  interest, 
and  looked  upon  the  schools  as  a  burden.  While  the 
clergy  generally  regarded  themselves  as  the  legitimate 
custodians  of  education,  they  paid  no  adequate  attention 
to  its  interests.  Many  princes,  believing  that  general 
intelligence  would  increase  the  difficulty  of  ruling,  were 
unfavorable  to  the  education  of  the  masses.  A  vast 
work  yet  remained  to  be  accomplished. 

Pestalozzi,  who  was  to  contribute  so  largely  to  this 
work,  was  bora  January  12, 1746,  in  the  beautiful  town 


268  FROM  THE  REFORMATION  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME. 

of  Zurich.  At  six  years  of  age  he  lost  Ms  father.  His 
mother  was  an  excellent  woman,  but  her  tenderness  was 
unfavorable  to  the  development  of  strength  of  charac- 
ter. "I  grew  up,"  he  says,  " by  the  side  of  the  best  of 
mothers,  as  a  mother's  child.  Year  after  year  I  never 
came  out  from  behind  the  stove.  In  short,  all  means 
and  stimulus  for  the  development  of  manly  strength, 
manly  experience,  manly  ways  of  thinking,  and  manly 
practice,  were  wanting  to  me  just  in  proportion  as  I 
needed  them  by  the  peculiarity  and  weakness  of  my  in- 
dividual character." 

He  did  not  distinguish  himself  at  school;  on  the 
contrary,  he  became  the  butt  of  fun  for  his  companions. 
"  In  all  games,"  he  says,  "  I  was  the  most  awkward  and 
most  helpless  of  all  my  schoolmates,  and  yet  I  wished 
to  excel  in  them  above  the  rest.  That  often  gave  them 
occasion  to  laugh  at  me.  One  of  them  gave  me  the 
nickname  of  Harry  Queer,  of  Follyville.  Most  of  them 
were  pleased  with  my  good  temper  and  serviceableness, 
but  they  knew  my  one-sidedness  and  want  of  skill,  and 
my  thoughtlessness  in  everything  which  did  not  interest 
me  much." 

His  feelings  were  very  strong.  This  fact,  which  was 
at  the  same  time  a  source  of  weakness  and  of  strength, 
is  illustrated  by  the  following  anecdote :  «  When  he  was 
once  in  great  pecuniary  distress,  and  his  family  were 
without  the  necessaries  of  life,  he  went  to  the  house  of 
a  friend  and  borrowed  a  sum  of  money.  On  his  way 
home  he  fell  in  with  a  peasant,  who  was  lamenting  the 
loss  of  a  cow.  Carried  away  as  usual  by  his  feelings, 
Pestalozzi  gave  the  man  all  the  money  he  had  borrowed, 
and  ran  away  to  escape  his  thanks." 


EDUCATION  IN  THE  NINETEENTH  CENTURY.        269 

He  was  thoroughly  injudicious.  This  fact  was  un- 
derstood by  an  intimate  friend  named  Bluntschli,  who 
upon  his  death-bed  gave  Pestalozzi,  then  a  young  man, 
the  following  advice:  "I  die,"  he  said;  "and,  when 
you  are  left  to  yourself,  I  warn  you  never  to  embark 
in  any  career  which,  from  your  good-natured  and  con- 
fiding disposition,  might  become  dangerous  to  you. 
Seek  for  a  quiet,  tranquil  career ;  and,  unless  you  have 
at  your  side  a  man  who  will  faithfully  assist  you  with 
a  calm,  dispassionate  knowledge  of  men  and  things, 
by  no  means  embark  in  any  extensive  undertaking, 
the  failure  of  wliich  would  in  any  way  be  perilous  to 
you." 

Pestalozzi  first  studied  theology,  but,  breaking  down 
in  his  first  sermon,  he  gave  up  the  ministry  for  law.  To 
this  pursuit  he  did  not  long  remain  constant.  In  1 767 
he  purchased  a  farm  of  about  one  hundred  acres,  to 
which  he  gave  the  name  Neuhof,  and  turned  his  atten- 
tion to  agriculture.  As  might  be  expected  from  what 
we  already  know  of  his  character,  the  enterprise  was  a 
failure.  At  an  earlier  period  he  had  perused  Rousseau's 
"  £mile,"  which  made  a  profound  impression  upon  him. 
Unmindful  of  his  own  financial  embarrassment,  moved 
by  sympathy  for  the  suffering  ones  around  him,  he 
opened  an  industrial  school  for  the  poor.  He  soon  had 
fifty  children  under  his  charge  to  provide  for.  His  plan 
was  to  combine  study  with  remunerative  labor.  But 
after  five  years  the  school  was  closed,  in  1780,  leaving 
Pestalozzi  heavily  involved  in  debt,  but  greatly  enriched 
in  educational  experience.  This  was  his  consolation : 
"  The  Christian  in  the  strength  of  faith  and  love,"  he 
says,  "  considers  his  property  not  as  a  gift  but  as  a  trust, 


270     FROM  THE  REFORMATION  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME. 

which  has  been  committed  to  his  hand,  that  he  may  use 
it  for  the  good  of  others." 

The  next  few  years  were  devoted  chiefly  to  author- 
ship as  a  means  of  obtaining  subsistence.  He  produced 
several  works  in  which  he  advanced  his  educational 
ideas,  and  through  which  he  has  exerted  a  lasting  influ- 
ence upon  education.  But  we  follow  him  in  his  work 
as  a  practical  educator.  In  1T98  Stanz,  a  town  on  Lake 
Lucerne,  was  burned  by  the  French.  The  whole  sur- 
rounding district  was  laid  waste,  and  a  number  of  or- 
phans were  left  destitute  and  homeless.  Upon  the 
recommendation  of  the  Swiss  directors,  Pestalozzi  went 
thither  to  look  after  them.  "With  only  one  servant  he 
established  himself  in  an  unfinished  convent,  and  soon 
had  eighty  children  under  his  care.  They  composed  a 
heterogeneous  mass  that  would  have  been  appalling  to 
any  one  with  less  enthusiasm  than  Pestalozzi.  He  ad- 
dressed himself  with  almost  superhuman  zeal  to  the 
work  of  improving  their  condition.  "  Every  assistance," 
he  says,  "everything  done  for  them  in  their  need,  all 
the  teaching  that  they  received,  came  directly  from  me ; 
my  hand  lay  on  their  hand,  my  eye  rested  on  their  eye. 
My  tears  flowed  with  theirs,  and  my  smile  accompanied 
theirs.  Their  food  was  mine,  and  their  drink  was  mine. 
I  had  nothing,  no  housekeeping,  no  friends,  no  servants ; 
I  had  them  alone.  I  slept  in  their  midst ;  I  was  the  last 
to  go  to  bed  at  night,  and  the  first  to  rise  in  the  morn- 
ing. I  prayed  with  them,  and  taught  them  in  bed  be- 
fore they  went  to  sleep."  This  is  an  unselfish  devotion 
that  makes  us  forget  many  defects  of  character. 

"  His  school-room,"  says  a  biographer,  "  was  totally 
unprovided  with  books,  and  his  apparatus  consisted  of 


EDUCATION  IN  THE  NINETEENTH  CENTURY.        271 

himself  and  his  pupils.  He  was  forced  to  adapt  these 
means  to  the  accomplishment  of  his  end.  He  directed 
his  whole  attention  to  those  natural  elements  which  are 
found  in  the  mind  of  every  child.  He  taught  numbers 
instead  of  figures ;  living  sounds  instead  of  dead  charac- 
ters ;  deeds  of  faith  and  love  instead  of  abstruse  creeds ; 
substance  instead  of  shadow ;  realities  instead  of  signs." 

In  the  space  of  a  few  months  Pestalozzi  wrought  a 
great  change  in  the  physical,  mental,  and  moral  condition 
of  his  pupils.  They  no  longer  seemed  the  same  beings. 
The  high  hopes  of  the  noble  enthusiast,  however,  were 
again  doomed  to  disappointment.  In  less  than  a  year 
the  French  army  returned  to  Stanz,  and  unceremoniously 
took  possession  of  the  convent.  No  choice  was  left  Pes- 
talozzi. He  was  obliged  to  relinquish  his  labors,  and 
parted  from  his  children  with  tears  and  sobs.  "Im- 
agine," he  writes  to  a  friend,  "  with  what  sensations  I 
left  Stanz.  Thus  might  feel  a  shipwrecked  mariner, 
who  sees  land  after  weary  and  restless  nights,  and  draws 
the  breath  of  coming  life,  but  is  again  thrown  into  the 
immensity  of  space.  This  was  my  own  condition.  Think 
of  the  fullness  of  my  heart,  the  greatness  of  my  plans, 
my  success  and  my  ruin,  the  trembling  of  my  disordered 
nerves,  and  my  mute  agony." 

In  the  course  of  a  few  weeks  he  entered  a  school  at 
Burgdorf  as  assistant  teacher.  He  carried  with  him  his 
old  enthusiasm  and  his  old  disregard  for  stereotyped 
methods.  Ramsauer,  then  a  pupil  in  the  school  and 
afterward  a  faithful  assistant  of  Pestalozzi's,  has  given 
us  an  account  of  the  Burgdorf  school.  He  says :  "  I  got 
about  as  much  regular  schooling  as  the  other  scholars — 
which,  in  fact,  was  none  at  all ;  but  Pestalozzi's  sacred 


272     FROM  THE  REFORMATION  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME. 

zeal,  his  devoted  love,  which  caused  him  to  be  entirely 
unmindful  of  himself,  his  serious  and  depressed  state  of 
mind,  which  struck  even  the  children,  made  the  deepest 
impression  on  me,  and  knit  my  child-like  and  grateful 
heart  to  his  forever."  Though  he  was  the  subject  of 
envy  and  intrigue,  Pestalozzi's  labors  at  Burgdorf  were 
not  left  wholly  without  recognition.  The  school  com- 
mittee of  that  town  expressed  themselves  in  a  report  as 
follows :  "  He  has  shown  what  powers  are  hidden  in  the 
feeble  child,  and  in  what  manner  they  can  be  developed. 
The  pupils  have  made  astonishing  progress  in  some 
branches,  thereby  proving  that  every  child  is  capable  of 
doing  something,  if  the  teacher  is  able  to  draw  out  his 
talent,  and  awaken  the  powers  of  his  mind  in  the  order 
of  their  natural  development." 

In  1805  he  opened  a  school  at  Tverdun.  Here  he 
attained  his  greatest  triumphs.  He  achieved  a  European 
reputation,  and  kings  and  philosophers  united  in  show- 
ing him  regard.  Yverdun  became  a  place  of  pilgrimage 
for  philanthropists  and  educators  from  all  parts  of  Eu- 
rope. In  1809  Pestalozzi  had  under  him  fifteen  teach- 
ers and  one  hundred  and  sixty -five  pupils,  besides  thirty- 
five  adult  students,  who  were  there  to  learn  his  methods. 
The  spirit  animating  the  institution  has  thus  been. de- 
scribed by  an  eye-witness:  "The  teachers  and  pupils 
were  united  by  that  unaffected  love  which  Pestalozzi, 
who  in  years  was  a  man  verging  on  the  grave,  but  in 
heart  and  mind  a  genuine  child,  seemed  to  breathe  out 
continually  and  impart  to  all  who  came  within  his  influ- 
ence. The  children  forgot  that  they  had  another  home, 
and  the  teachers  that  there  was  any  other  world  than 
the  institution.  Not  a  man  claimed  a  privilege  for  him- 


EDUCATION  IN  THE  NINETEENTH  CENTURY.        273 

self,  not  one  wished  to  be  considered  above  others. 
Teachers  and  pupils  were  entirely  united.  They  not 
only  slept  in  the  same  rooms,  and  shared  the  labors  and 
enjoyments  of  the  day,  but  they  were  on  a  footing  of 
perfect  equality.  The  same  man  who  read  a  lecture  on 
history  one  hour  would,  perhaps,  during  the  next  sit  on 
the  same  form  with  the  pupils  for  a  lesson  in  arithmetic 
or  geometry,  and  without  compromising  his  dignity 
would  even  request  their  assistance  and  receive  their 
hints." 

In  reference  to  his  work  here,  Pestalozzi  himself 
writes :  "  The  difficulties  that  opposed  my  enterprise  in 
the  beginning  were  very  great.  Public  opinion  was 
wholly  against  me.  Thousands  looked  upon  my  work 
as  quackery,  and  nearly  all  who  believed  themselves 
competent  judges  declared  it  worthless.  Some  con- 
demned it  as  silly  mechanism ;  some  looked  upon  it  as 
mere  memorizing,  while  others  contended  that  it  neg- 
lected the  memory  for  the  sake  of  the  understanding ; 
some  accused  me  of  a  want  of  religion,  and  others  of 
revolutionizing  intentions.  But,  thank  God,  all  these 
objections  have  been  overcome.  The  children  of  our 
institution  are  full  of  joy  and  happiness ;  their  innocence 
is  guarded ;  their  religious  feelings  are  fostered ;  their 
minds  are  cultivated ;  their  knowledge  increased ;  their 
hearts  inspired  with  a  love  of  virtue.  The  whole  is  per- 
vaded by  the  great  spirit  of  home-union  ;  a  pure  fatherly 
and  brotherly  spirit  rules  all.  The  children  feel  free ; 
their  activity  is  incited  by  their  occupations ;  affection 
and  confidence  elevate  and  guide  their  hearts." 

In  the  midst  of  his  success,  Pestalozzi  still  retained 
his  touching  simplicity  and  self -forgetf illness.  On  one 


274:     FROM  THE  REFORMATION  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME. 

occasion  "  a  poor  young  man  had  traveled  on  foot  a  long 
distance  to  pay  his  tribute  of  respect  and  admiration  to 
Pestalozzi;  but,  upon  arriving  at  Yverdun,  he  found 
himself  so  reduced  that  he  could  not  pay  for  a  night's 
lodging  at  the  hotel.  Pestalozzi,  not  wishing  to  disturb 
the  household,  offered  his  own  bed  to  the  wearied  guest. 
Some  friends,  calling  at  his  room  soon  after,  were  aston- 
ished to  see  his  bed  occupied  by  a  stranger.  Alarmed 
by  his  absence  they  went  in  search  of  him,  and  found 
him  at  last  stretched  on  one  of  the  hard  benches  of  the 
school-room  in  sound  sleep,  and  totally  unconscious  that 
he  had  done  anything  but  his  duty." 

At  Yverdun  Pestalozzi  lost,  in  1815,  the  noble  wife 
who  had  stood  faithfully  by  his  side  through  the  labors 
and  trials  of  nearly  fifty  years.  At  the  burial,  Pesta- 
lozzi, turning  to  the  coffin,  said  with  great  tenderness : 
"  We  were  shunned  and  despised  by  all ;  sickness  and 
poverty  bowed  us  down,  and  we  ate  dry  bread  with 
tears.  What  was  it  that  in  those  days  of  severe  trial 
gave  you  and  me  strength  to  persevere  and  not  lose 
hope  ? "  Then  laying  a  Bible  on  the  breast  of  the  de- 
parted, he  continued :  "  From  this  source  you  and  I 
drew  courage  and  strength  and  peace." 

The  sun  of  Pestalozzi's  life,  which  had  shone  brightly 
for  a  little  while  in  the  afternoon,  was  to  set  in  clouds. 
Discord  broke  out  at  length  among  the  teachers  at  Yver- 
dun. After  disturbing  the  peace  and  prosperity  of  the 
school  for  a  long  time,  it  led  at  last,  in  1825,  to  its  sus- 
pension. Pestalozzi  returned  to  Neuhof,  where  he  was 
prostrated  with  a  fever.  He  died  February  17,  1827. 
During  his  last  hours  he  said :  "  I  forgive  my  enemies ; 
may  they  find  peace,  now  that  I  go  to  my  rest.  I  should 


EDUCATION  IN  THE  NINETEENTH  CENTURY.        275 

have  been  glad  to  live  another  month,  in  order  to  com- 
plete my  last  work ;  but  I  also  thank  God  for  calling 
me  away  from  this  life.  My  beloved  family,  remain  at- 
tached to  one  another,  and  seek  your  happiness  in  the 
quietness  of  your  domestic  circle."  Subject  to  disap- 
pointment all  his  days,  his  life  was  still  a  great  triumph. 
It  was  spent  in  unselfish  devotion  to  the  good  of  others ; 
and,  like  that  of  the  blessed  Master  who  went  about 
doing  good,  it  has  borne  a  rich  fruitage  for  the  world. 

The  object  of  our  study  thus  far  has  been  chiefly  to 
gain  a  clear  knowledge  of  the  man.  We  now  turn  to  a 
brief  examination  of  some  of  his  educational  principles, 
as  embodied  in  his  leading  works,  viz. :  "  Evening  Hour 
of  a  Hermit,"  "Leonard  and  Gertrude,"  and  "How 
Gertrude  teaches  her  Children."  He  rejected  the  cur- 
rent humanistic  word  -  teaching.  "A  man,"  he  says, 
"  who  has  only  word-wisdom  is  less  susceptible  to  the 
truth  than  a  savage.  The  use  of  mere  words  produces 
men  who  believe  that  they  have  reached  the  goal,  be- 
cause their  whole  life  has  been  spent  in  talking  about  it, 
but  who  never  ran  toward  it,  because  no  motive  impelled 
them  to  make  the  effort ;  hence,  I  come  to  the  convic- 
tion that  the  fundamental  error — the  blind  use  of  words 
in  matters  of  instruction — must  be  extirpated  before  it 
is  possible  to  resuscitate  life  and  truth." 

The  educational  conception  that  lies  at  the  basis  of 
Pestalozzi's  system  is  that  of  a  natural,  progressive,  and 
symmetrical  development  of  all  the  powers  and  facul- 
ties of  the  human  being.  This  is  the  completcst  and 
grandest  conception  of  education.  "  Sound  education," 
says  Pestalozzi,  "  stands  before  me  symbolized  by  a  tree 
planted  near  fertilizing  waters.  A  little  seed,  which 


276     FROM  THE  REFORMATION  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME. 

contains  the  design  of  the  tree,  its  form  and  proportions, 
is  placed  in  the  soil.  See  how  it  germinates  and  ex- 
pands into  trunk,  branches,  leaves,  flowers,  and  fruit! 
The  whole  tree  is  an  uninterrupted  chain  of  organic 
parts,  the  plan  of  which  existed  in  its  seed  and  root. 
Man  is  similar  to  the  tree.  In  the  new-born  child  are 
hidden  those  faculties  which  are  to  unfold  during  life. 
The  individual  and  separate  organs  of  his  being  form 
themselves  gradually  into  an  harmonic  whole,  and  build 
up  humanity  in  the  image  of  God." 

Pestalozzi  beautifully  emphasizes  in  reference  to  the 
higher  exercises  of  the  mind  the  principle  of  Comenius 
that  "things  to  be  done  should  be  learned  by  doing 
them."  "  The  moral,  intellectual,  and  executive  powers 
of  man,"  he  says,  "jnust  be  nurtured  within  himself, 
and  not  from  artificial  substitutes.  Thus,  faith  must  be 
cultivated  by  our  own  act  of  believing,  not  by  reasoning 
about  faith ;  love,  by  our  own  act  of  loving,  not  by  fine 
words  about  love  ;  thought,  by  our  own  act  of  thinking, 
not  by  merely  appropriating  the  thoughts  of  other  men ; 
and  knowledge,  by  our  own  investigation,  not  by  endless 
talk  about  the  results  of  art  and  science." 

A  natural  order  is  to  be  observed  in  education. 
"Men,  fathers!"  Pestalozzi  exclaims,  "force  not  the 
faculties  of  your  children  into  paths  too  distant  before 
they  have  attained  strength  by  exercise,  and  avoid  harsh- 
ness and  over-fatigue.  "When  this  right  order  of  pro- 
ceedings is  anticipated,  the  faculties  of  the  mind  are 
weakened  and  lose  their  steadiness,  and  the  equipoise  of 
their  structure.  This  you  do  when,  before  making  them 
sensitive  to  truth  and  wisdom  by  the  real  knowledge  of 
actual  objects,  you  engage  them  in  the  thousand-fold 


EDUCATION  IN  THE  NINETEENTH  CENTURY.        277 

confusions  of  word-learning  and  opinions ;  and  lay  the 
foundation  of  their  mental  character  and  of  the  first  de- 
termination of  their  powers,  instead  of  truth  and  actual 
objects,  with  sounds  and  speech — and  words." 

The  fundamental  principles  of  Pestalozzi,  most  of 
which  are  contained  in  the  extracts  already  given  from 
his  writings,  have  been  summarized  by  Payne  substan- 
tially as  follows : 

1.  The  principles  of  education  are  to  be  sought  in 
human  nature. 

2.  This  nature  is  organic,  consisting  of  pnysical,  in- 
tellectual, and  moral  capabilities,  ready  and  struggling 
to  develop  themselves. 

3.  The  function  of  the  educator  is  both  negative  and 
positive.    He  must  remove  impediments  to  the  learner's 
development,  and  he  must  also  stimulate  the  exercise  of 
his  powers. 

4.  Self-development  begins  with  sensations  received 
through  the  senses.     These  sensations  lead  to  percep- 
tions which,  registered  in  the  mind  as  conceptions  or 
ideas,  constitute  the  basis  of  knowledge. 

5.  "  Spontaneity  and  self-activity  are  the  necessary 
conditions  under  which  the  mind  educates  itself,  and 
gains  power  and  independence." 

6.  Practical  aptness  depends  more  on  exercise  than 
on  knowledge.     "Knowing  and  doing  must,  howevor. 
proceed  together.     The  chief  aim  of  education  is  the 
development  of  the  learner's  powers." 

7.  All  education  must  be  based  on  the  learner's  own 
observation — on  his  own  personal  experience.    "  This  is 
the  true  basis  of  all  knowledge.     The  opposite  proceed- 
ing leads  to  empty,  hollow,  delusive  word-knowledge. 


278     FROM  THE  REFORMATION  TO  TDE  PRESENT  TIME. 

First  the  reality,  then  the  symbol ;  first  the  thing,  then 
the  word." 

8.  What  the  learner  has  gained  by  his  own  observa- 
tion has  become  an  actual  possession  which  he  can  ex- 
plain or  describe  in  his  own  words.     His  ability  to  do 
this  is  the  measure  of  the  accuracy  and  extent  of  his 
knowledge. 

9.  The  learner's  growth  necessitates  advancement 
from  the  near  and  actual  to  the  more  remote ;  hence, 
from  the  concrete  to  the  abstract,  from  particulars  to 
generals,  from  the  known  to  the  unknown. 

With  this  summary  of  principles,  which  are  gradu- 
ally permeating  and  changing  modern  education,  we 
leave  Pestalozzi,  whom,  notwithstanding  his  imperfec- 
tions, we  can  not  help  loving.  And  this  is  the  highest 
tribute  which  one  being,  whether  human  or  divine,  can 
pay  another. 

(B.)  FROEBEL  AND  THE  KINDERGARTEN. 

One  of  the  most  illustrious  disciples  of  Pestalozzi 
was  Frederick  Froebel,  who  was  born  in  Thuringia,  in 
1782.  He  was  the  son  of  a  Lutheran  clergyman,  who 
was  so  occupied  in  caring  for  a  large  parish  that  he  neg- 
lected his  son.  Having  early  lost  his  mother,  he  was -in- 
trusted to  the  care  of  a  maid-servant,  who  exercised  as 
little  oversight  as  possible.  The  step-mother,  that  came 
into  the  house  in  his  fourth  year,  became  gradually 
estranged  from  him,  and  filled  his  young  heart  with 
grief. 

In  due  time  he  entered  the  village  school  to  receive 
his  rudimentary  education.  The  religious  instruction  he 
here  received  made  a  deep  impression.  The  older 


EDUCATION  IN   THE  NINETEENTH  CENTURY.        279 

pupils  were  required  to  repeat  to  the  younger  ones  some 
text  of  Scripture  occurring  in  the  sermon  on  Sunday. 
Froebel  entered  school  on  Monday ;  the  passage  for  the 
week  was,  "  Seek  ye  first  the  kingdom  of  God."  "  I 
heard  these  words,"  he  says,  "  repeated  every  day  in  a 
quiet,  earnest,  somewhat  sing-song,  childish  tone,  now 
by  one,  now  by  the  whole.  The  verse  made  an  impres- 
sion on  me  like  nothing  before  or  since.  Indeed,  this 
impression  was  so  lively  and  deep,  that  to-day  every 
word  lives  freshly  in  my  memory  with  the  peculiar  ac- 
cent with  which  it  was  spoken  ;  and  yet  since  that  time 
nearly  forty  years  have  elapsed.  Perhaps  the  simple 
child's  soul  felt  in  these  words  the  source  and  salvation 
of  his  life.  Indeed,  that  conviction  became  to  the  strug- 
gling, striving  man  a  source  of  inexhaustible  courage,  of 
always  unimpaired  joy,  and  willingness  in  self-consecra- 
tion. Enough  to  say,  my  entrance  into  this  school  was 
for  me  the  birth  to  a  higher  spiritual  life." 

Froebel's  local  surroundings  tended  to  bring  him 
into  sympathy  with  Nature.  The  woods  possessed  a 
charm  for  him ;  and  in  hours  of  leisure  he  loved  to  steal 
away  to  loiter  by  babbling  brooks,  to  gather  flowers,  to 
listen  to  the  songs  of  birds,  to  watch  the  movements  of 
animals,  and  to  catch  the  sighing  of  winds  through  the 
trees.  His  father's  house  was  closely  hemmed  in  by 
other  buildings.  "I  was  thus  deprived,"  he  says,  "of  a 
distant  view ;  only  above  me  I  saw  the  clear  sky  of  the 
mountain-region,  and  felt  around  me  the  pure  fresh  air. 
The  impression  which  this  clear  sky  and  this  pure  air 
made  upon  me  has  continuously  remained  present  with 
me.  My  observation  was  truly  directed  on  what  was 
near  me  in  Nature ;  the  plant  and  flower  world  became, 


280     FROM  THE  REFORMATION  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME. 

so  far  as  I  could  see  and  touch  it,  an  object  of  my  con- 
templation and  thought." 

At  ten  years  of  age  he  went  to  live  with  an  uncle, 
whose  home  was  pervaded  with  a  spirit  of  kindness  and 
benevolence.  To  a  boy  of  warm,  generous  nature,  who 
had  been  accustomed  only  to  austerity  under  the  parental 
roof,  this  was  peculiarly  grateful.  He  developed  bodily 
strength ;  his  sympathy  with  Nature  became  more  pro- 
found and  intelligent,  and  the  warmth  of  his  religious 
life  amounted  at  times  to  enthusiasm.  He  entered  the 
town  school  of  Stadt-Ilm,  where  his  uncle  lived.  The 
teacher,  "a  regular  driller  of  the  old,  time -honored 
stamp,  had  not  the  slightest  conception  of  the  inner  na- 
ture of  his  pupil,"  says  Payne,  "  and  seems  to  have  taken 
no  pains  whatever  to  discover  it.  He  pronounced  the 
boy  to  be  idle  (which,  from  his  point  of  view,  was  quite 
true)  and  lazy  (which  certainly  was  not  true) — a  boy,  in 
short,  you  could  do  nothing  with.  And,  in  fact,  the 
teacher  did  nothing  with  his  pupil,  never  once  touched 
the  chords  of  his  inner  being,  or  brought  out  the  music 
they  were  fitted,  under  different  handling,  to  produce. 
Froebel  was  indeed,  at  that  time,  a  thoughtful,  dreamy 
child,  a  very  indifferent  student  of  books,  cordially  hat- 
ing the  formal  lessons  with  which  he  was  crammed,  and 
never  so  happy  as  when  left  alone  with  his  great  teacher 
in  the  woods." 

At  the  age  of  fifteen  he  became  a  forester's  appren- 
tice. This  man,  though  possessed  of  extensive  knowl- 
edge, was  too  busy  to  give  his  protege  the  promised  in- 
struction. Thrown  upon  his  own  resources,  Froebel  did 
the  best  he  could  with  the  forester's  books  in  teaching 
himself.  From  a  physician  in  a  neighboring  town  he 


EDUCATION  IN  THE  NINETEENTH  CENTURY.        281 

borrowed  botanical  books,  by  means  of  which  he  en- 
larged his  acquaintance  with  the  vegetable  kingdom. 
"  I  used  the  long  time  of  the  forester's  absence,"  he  says, 
"  during  which  I  was  left  entirely  to  myself,  for  draw- 
ing a  kind  of  map  of  the  district  in  which  I  lived; 
botany,  however,  busied  me  chiefly.  My  church  religion 
changed  into  a  religious  life  in  Nature,  and  in  the  last 
half-year  I  lived  entirely  in  and  with  plants,  which  at- 
tracted me  wonderfully,  without,  however,  the  meaning 
of  the  inner  life  of  the  plant-world  yet  dawning  on  me. 
The  collecting  and  drying  of  plants  I  carried  on  with 
the  greatest  zeal.  This  time,  in  manifold  ways,  was  de- 
voted to  my  self -education,  self  information,  and  eleva- 
tion." 

In  1799  Froebel  entered  the  University  of  Jena, 
where  he  attended  lectures  on  mathematics,  botany,  nat- 
ural history,  physics,  chemistry,  the  science  of  finance, 
forest  matters,  and  architecture.  "  In  botany,"  he  says,  "  I 
had  a  sensible,  loving,  and  benevolent  teacher.  Through 
him  my  insight  into  Nature  was  essentially  quickened, 
and  my  love  for  observing  it  made  more  active.  I  shall 
always  think  of  this  man  with  gratitude."  Having 
loaned  a  part  of  his  means  to  his  brother,  Froebel  be- 
came involved  in  debt  at  the  university ;  and,  being  un- 
able for  a  time  to  make  payment,  he  suffered  imprison- 
ment for  nine  weeks,  obtaining  his  freedom  in  the  sum- 
mer of  1801. 

The  next  several  years  were  spent  in  various  employ- 
ments without  yielding  him  either  much  profit  or  peace 
of  mind.  He  had  not  yet  found  the  sphere  for  which 
Nature  had  fitted  him.  In  1805  we  find  him  in  Frank- 
fort with  an  architect ;  but,  failing  to  see  clearly  how  he 


282     FROM  THE  REFORMATION  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME. 

could  accomplish  anything  through  architecture  for  the 
ennobling  of  man,  his  position  did  not  give  him  satis- 
faction. At  length  the  turning-point  in  his  life  came. 
One  day  Gruner,  the  principal  of  a  model  school,  just 
established  at  Frankfort,  said  to  him :  "  Give  up  archi- 
tecture ;  it  is  not  for  you.  Become  an  educator.  We 
need  a  teacher  in  our  school.  Make  up  your  mind,  and 
you  shall  have  the  place."  After  some  hesitation  he 
accepted  the  position;  and  the  ecstasy  he  felt,  as  he 
stood  for  the  first  time  in  the  presence  of  the  school, 
convinced  him  that  he  had  found  his  place.  To  use  his 
own  expression,  "  The  fish  was  in  the  water." 

In  1808  he  went  to  Yverdun,  and  spent  two  years 
with  Pestalozzi.  He  took  with  him  three  pupils,  of 
whom  he  had  charge  as  tutor.  "  Thus  it  happened,"  he 
says,  "  that  1  was  there  both  as  teacher  and  scholar,  edu- 
cator and  pupil.  In  order  to  be  fully  and  perfectly 
placed  in  the  midst  and  heart  of  Pestalozzi's  work,  I 
wished  to  reside  with  my  pupils  in  the  building  of  the 
institution,  in  the  castle  so  called.  "We  wished  to  share 
everything  with  the  rest ;  but  this  wish  was  not  granted 
us,  for  strange  selfishness  interfered.  Yet  I  soon  came 
to  dwell  as  near  the  institution  as  possible,  so  that  we 
shared  dinner,  afternoon  lunch,  and  supper,  the  instruc- 
tion adapted  to  us,  and  the  whole  life  of  the  pupils.  I 
for  myself  had  nothing  more  serious  to  do  than  to  allow 
my  pupils  to  take  a  full  share  of  that  life,  strengthening 
spirit  and  body.  With  this  aim  we  shared  all  instruc- 
tion, and  it  was  a  special  care  to  me  to  talk  with  Pesta- 
lozzi on  every  subject  from  its  first  point  of  connection, 
to  learn  to  know  it  from  its  foundation."  He  thus  be- 
came thoroughly  acquainted  with  Pestalozzi's  system, 


EDUCATION  IN  THE  NINETEENTH  CENTURY.        283 

which  in  its  essential  features  he  cordially  adopted,  but 
which  he  also  supplemented  and  improved. 

Afterward  feeling  the  necessity  of  increasing  his 
store  of  knowledge,  he  studied  at  the  Universities  of 
Gottingen  and  Berlin.  In  1813  he  joined  the  Prussian 
army,  and  took  an  active  part  in  the  campaign  against 
Napoleon.  After  the  close  of  the  war  he  established  a 
school  at  Keilhau,  in  which  he  followed  "  the  principle 
of  cultivating  the  self-activity  of  the  pupil  by  connect- 
ing manual  labor  with  every  study."  But  after  a  varied 
experience,  extending  through  fifteen  years,  the  convic- 
tion fixed  itself  upon  him  that  a  change  in  the  earliest 
methods  of  instruction  was  necessary  to  a  thorough  edu- 
cational reform.  This  brings  us  to  the  Kindergarten, 
upon  which  the  fame  of  Froebel  chiefly  rests. 

Carefully  considering  the  ways  of  children,  Froebel 
saw  that  they  delight  in  movement ;  that  they  use  their 
senses ;  that  they  observe ;  that  they  invent  and  con- 
struct. All  this  activity  he  proposed  to  turn  to  account 
in  the  interest  of  education.  He  said  :  "  I  can  convert 
children's  activities,  energies,  amusements,  occupations, 
all  that  goes  by  the  name  of  play,  into  instruments  for 
my  purpose,  and  therefore  transform  play  into  work. 
This  work  will  be  education  in  the  true  sense  of  the 
term.  The  conception  of  it  as  such  I  have  gained  from 
the  children  themselves.  They  have  taught  me  how  I 
am  to  teach  them." 

The  Kindergarten  is  a  school  which  receives  children 
at  a  very  early  age,  and  by  systematizing  their  plays, 
directing  their  activity,  and  giving  order  to  their  ideas, 
develops  their  faculties  harmoniously,  and  prepares  them 
for  the  work  of  the  ordinary  school.  The  object  of  the 


284:     FROM  THE  REFORMATION  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME. 

Kindergarten,  as  expressed  by  Froebel  himself,  is  as  fol- 
lows :  "  It  shall  receive  children  before  the  usual  school 
age,  give  them  employment  suited  to  their  nature, 
strengthen  their  bodies,  exercise  their  senses,  employ 
the  waking  mind,  make'  them  acquainted  judiciously 
with  Nature  and  society,  cultivate  especially  the  heart 
and  temper,  and  lead  them  to  the  foundation  of  all  liv- 
ing— to  unity  with  themselves." 

The  physical  nature  of  the  child  is  developed  by 
calisthenic  exercises ;  its  social  instincts  are  strengthened 
by  association  with  companions  in  amusements  and 
work ;  its  senses  are  cultivated  by  means  of  playthings, 
called  gifts,  such  as  balls,  cylinders,  cones,  variously  dis- 
sected cubes,  quadrilateral  and  triangular  tablets,  sticks, 
and  mats  for  weaving ;  and  its  mind  is  exercised  by  the 
imitative  or  inventive  uses  it  is  taught  to  make  of  these 
objects. 

The  effects  of  the  Kindergarten  training  have  been 
thus  summed  up  by  an  English  lecturer :  "  What  the 
Kindergarten  has  to  show  are  happy,  healthy,  good- 
natured  children;  no  proficiency  in  learning  of  any 
kind,  no  precocity ;  but  just  children  in  their  normal 
state.  The  Kindergarten  rejects  reading,  writing,  cipher- 
ing, spelling.  In  it  children  under  six  build,  plait,  fold, 
model,  sing,  act ;  in  short,  they  learn  in  play  to  work, 
to  construct,  to  invent,  to  relate  and  speak  correctly, 
and  what  is  best  of  all— to  love  each  other,  to  be  kind 
to  each  other,  to  help  each  other." 

It  is  interesting  to  look  behind  a  great  work  to  dis- 
cover the  spirit  of  the  author,  and  it  is  also  important 
to  examine  the  principles  upon  which  it  rests.  Froebel, 
like  his  illustrious  master,  Pestalozzi,  was  animated  by  a 


EDUCATION  IN  THE  NINETEENTH  CENTURY.        285 

profound  love  for  humanity.  This  gave  to  his  endeavors 
an  exalted  character.  "  The  fame  of  knowledge,"  it  was 
said  over  his  grave,  "  was  not  his  ambition.  Glowing 
love  for  mankind,  for  the  people,  left  him  neither  rest 
nor  quiet.  After  he  had  offered  his  life  for  his  native 
land  in  the  wars  of  freedom,  he  turned  with  the  same 
enthusiasm  which  surrenders  and  sacrifices  for  the  high- 
est thought,  to  the  aim  of  cultivating  the  people  and 
youth,  founded  the  celebrated  institution  at  Keilhau 
among  his  native  mountains,  and  talked  and  planted  in 
the  domain  of  men's  hearts.  And  how  many  brave 
men  he  has  educated,  who  honor  his  memory  and  bless 
his  name  ! " 

Froebel  accepted  the  great  body  of  Pestalozzi's  edu- 
cational principles.  He  held  that  education  is  a  har- 
monious development  of  the  human  faculties ;  that  its 
principles  are  to  be  found  in  a  study  of  Nature ;  that  de- 
velopment depends  upon  the  self -activity  of  the  learner ; 
and  that  observation  is  the  basis  of  knowledge.  In  ref- 
erence to  education  as  a  development,  he  says  with  ve- 
hemence :  "  All  that  does  not  grow  out  of  one's  inner 
being,  all  that  is  not  one's  own  original  feeling  and 
thought,  or  at  least  awakens  that,  oppresses  and  defaces 
the  individuality  of  man  instead  of  calling  it  forth,  and 
Nature  becomes  thereby  a  caricature.  Shall  we  never 
cease  to  stamp  human  nature,  even  in  childhood,  like 
coins,  to  overlay  it  with  foreign  images  and  foreign 
superscriptions  instead  of  letting  it  develop  itself  and 
grow  into  form  according  to  the  law  of  life  planted  in 
it  by  God  the  Father,  so  that  it  may  be  able  to  bear  the 
stamp  of  the  Divine,  and  become  an  image  of  God? 
For  hundreds  of  years  we  Germans  especially,  through 


286  FROM  THE  REFORMATION  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME. 

imitation  of  foreign  nations,  have  worn  these  fetters, 
which  do  not  allow  the  deepest  nature  of  the  people  or 
of  individuals  to  move  and  unfold  freely." 

In  several  points,  however,  Froebel  has  supplemented 
the  principles  of  Pestalozzi.  He  recognized  the  imprac- 
ticability of  the  domestic  training  for  early  childhood 
which  Pestalozzi  so  warmly  advocated.  Most  mothers 
have  neither  the  time  nor  qualifications  to  give  this 
training.  And,  appreciating  the  importance  of  it,  Froe- 
bel devised  the  Kindergarten,  which  supplies  a  veritable 
want  in  education. 

He  further  placed  more  emphasis  on  the  productive 
self -activity  of  the  child  than  Pestalozzi  did.  All  knowl- 
edge gained  is  utilized  at  once  in  some  form  of  product- 
iveness. In  the  language  of  Dr.  W.  N.  Hailman: 
"Every  new  intuition  is  to  be  used  in  new  forms  of 
expression,  and  to  be  combined  in  every  possible  man- 
ner with  previous  acquisitions,  in  more  and  more  com- 
plicated, more  and  more  directly  useful  productions. 
He  keeps  the  learner  ever  busy,  imitating  and  inventing 
with  the  ever-increasing  stock  of  knowledge  ;  and  ever 
increasing  the  stock  of  ideas  with  the  aid  of  imitations 
and  inventions." 

Froebel  was  also  the  first  to  appreciate  fully  the 
value  of  women  as  educators.  In  many  respects  women 
are  better  fitted  for  instructing  children  than  men  are. 
They  have  greater  tenderness,  a  deeper  sympathy,  a 
keener  perception,  greater  adaptability  to  childish  ways, 
and  at  the  same  time  they  are  more  graceful  and  win- 
ning. "  The  destiny  of  nations,"  Froebel  often  repeated, 
"  lies  far  more  in  the  hands  of  women — the  mothers— 
than  in  the  possessors  of  power,  or  of  those  innovators 


EDUCATION  IN  THE  NINETEENTH  CENTURY.        287 

who  for  the  most  part  do  not  understand  themselves. 
We  must  cultivate  women,  who  are  the  educators  of  the 
human  race,  else  the  new  generation  can  not  accomplish 
its  task."  He  regarded  women  as  his  natural  allies  in 
his  educational  reforms,  and  to  his  appeals  they  have 
responded  nobly.  It  is  chiefly  through  their  agency 
that  his  reforms  have  been  promoted  in  both  America 
and  Europe.  Fortunate  is  the  cause  that  enlists  the 
hearty  interest  and  support  of  women ! 

The  leading  ideas  in  Froebel's  educational  system 
have  been  summed  up  as  follows : 

"  1.  The  task  of  education  is  to  assist  natural  devel- 
opment toward  its  destined  end.  As  the  child's  devel- 
opment begins  with  its  first  breath,  so  must  its  education 
also. 

"  2.  As  the  beginning  gives  a  bias  to  the  whole  after- 
development,  so  the  early  beginnings  of  education  are 
of  most  importance. 

"  3.  The  spiritual  and  physical  development  do  not 
go  on  separately  in  childhood,  but  the  two  are  closely 
bound  up  with  each  other. 

"4.  Early  education  must  deal  directly  with  the 
physical  development,  and  influence  the  spiritual  devel- 
opment through  the  exercise  of  the  senses. 

"  5.  The  right  mode  of  procedure  in  the  exercise  of 
these  organs  is  indicated  by  nature  in  the  utterances  of 
the  child's  instincts,  and  through  these  alone  can  a  natu- 
ral basis  of  education  be  found. 

"  6.  The  instincts  of  the  child,  as  a  being  destined 
to  become  reasonable,  express  not  only  physical  but  also 
spiritual  wants.  Education  has  to  satisfy  both. 

"  7.   The  development  of  the  limbs  by  means  of 


288      FROM  THE  REFORMATION  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME. 

movement  is  the  first  that  takes  place,  and  therefore 
claims  our  first  attention. 

"  8.  Physical  impressions  are  at  the  beginning  of 
life  the  only  possible  medium  for  awakening  the  child's 
soul.  These  impressions  should,  therefore,  be  regulated 
as  systematically  as  is  the  care  of  the  body,  and  not  be 
left  to  chance." 

Froebel  died  June  21, 1852.  "  Like  all  self-educated 
persons,"  says  a  biographer,  "  he  was  deficient  in  logical 
clearness,  especially  in  writing,  when  a  flood  of  ideas 
overwhelmed  him ;  as  a  practical  teacher,  he  was  won- 
derfully impressive  and  clear.  Awkward  in  appearance, 
indifferent  to  the  conventionalities  of  life,  and  always 
filled  with  one  interest,  one  range  of  ideas  and  efforts, 
he  nevertheless  exerted  on  all  genuine  educators  who 
came  in  contact  with  him,  irrespective  of  creed,  station 
in  life,  or  party,  an  almost  magical  influence.  Although 
a  devout  Christian  and  religionist,  he  was  entirely  un- 
sectarian ;  although  a  revolutionary  thinker  in  most  re- 
spects, he  kept  free  from  all  attempts  at  practical  revo- 
lution ;  although  a  cosmopolitan  and  lover  of  mankind, 
he  was  an  ardent  national  German;  and,  although  in 
theory  he  was  most  uncritical,  in  speech  incoherent  and 
hardly  intelligible,  his  system  of  methods  for  the  devel- 
opment of  the  mind  is  eminently  practical,  systematic, 
and  effective." 

(c.)   CONTEMPORARY   EDUCATION. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  education  is  now  receiv- 
ing far  more  attention  than  at  any  period  in  the  past, 
and  that  it  is  rapidly  becoming  universal.  Since  the 
American  and  the  French  Kevolution,  the  masses  of  the 


EDUCATION  IN  THE  NINETEENTH  CENTURY.        289 

people  in  all  Christian  lands  have  been  rising  in  impor- 
tance. Popular  intelligence  is  everywhere  reckoned 
an  element  of  national  power  and  wealth,  and  the  sta- 
bility of  republics  is  recognized  as  resting  upon  the 
knowledge  and  virtue  of  the  people.  The  worth  of 
woman  is  appreciated  now  as  never  before.  No  longer 
held  in  the  base  subjection  of  heathen  countries,  and  ex- 
cluded from  the  blessings  of  culture,  she  now  enjoys,  in 
all  enlightened  nations,  excellent  facilities  for  education. 
Her  sphere  is  growing  larger;  her  education  goes  be- 
yond a  narrow  circle  of  dainty  accomplishments ;  and 
with  cultivated  mind  she  takes  a  place  of  wide  influence 
in  society,  and  stands  by  her  husband  as  his  friend,  his 
counselor,  and  his  equal. 

No  civilized  nation  now  fails  to  make  provision,  to 
a  greater  or  less  degree,  for  the  instruction  of  the  peo- 
ple. Even  the  unprogressive  nations  of  the  Orient  are 
affected  by  the  Christian  education  of  the  West.  China, 
with  its  strange  conservatism,  is  relaxing  its  former 
rigor  against  foreign  institutions.  Many  schools  have 
been  established  by  Christian  missionaries,  especially  of 
the  Catholic  Church ;  and,  besides  a  workshop  at  Shang- 
hai, and  a  polytechnic  school  in  the  province  of  Futs- 
chien  conducted  by  foreign  teachers,  a  university  on 
the  European  plan  was  opened  at  Peking  in  1868  under 
imperial  patronage.  Japan  has  been  thoroughly  mod- 
ernized in  education.  Since  1872  that  country  has  had 
a  comprehensive  school  system,  including  primary 
schools,  academies,  normal  schools,  colleges,  and  univer- 
sities. These  schools,  modeled  chiefly  after  those  of 
America,  are  supplied  with  modern  furniture  and  appa- 
ratus, and  are  conducted  upon  scientific  methods.  Both 

13 


290     FROM  THE  REFORMATION  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME. 

sexes  have  the  same  educational  advantages  up  to  the 
normal  school.     The  courses  of  instruction  are  substan- 
tially the  same  as  in  schools  of  corresponding  grade  in 
Europe  and  America,  save  that  English  and  other  mod- 
ern languages  take  the  place  of  Lathi  and  Greek.   India 
is  gradually  receiving  at  the  hands  of  England  an  educa- 
tional system  extending  from  elementary  schools  to  col- 
leges and  universities.     Public  instruction  now  forms  a 
department  of  the  government,  and  a  network  of  schools 
is  being  extended  by  degrees  over  the  whole  country. 
Some  institutions  are  entirely  supported  by  the  govern- 
ment, while  others,  established  by  local  effort  or  mis- 
sionary zeal,  receive  grants  in  aid.     In  the  elementary 
schools,  the  vernacular  is  chiefly  employed,  but  in  the 
secondary  schools  English  is  taught  and  used  in  daily 
intercourse.     Female  education  has  but  made  a  begin- 
ning.    In  1882  the  total  number  of  educational  institu- 
tions of  all  sorts  in  British  India  was  112,218,  attended 
by  an  aggregate  of  2,643,978  pupils,  showing  an  aver- 
age of  one  school  to  every  twelve  square  miles,  and  ten 
pupils  to  every  thousand  of  the  population.     In  the 
same  year  the  total  expenditure  upon  education  by  the 
government  was  about  $6,440,000.     Persia  and  Egypt, 
though  languishing  under  Mohammedan  rule,  have  to 
some  extent  imported  European  educational  ideas. 

But  it  is  in  Europe  and  America  that  the  tendencies 
toward  universal  education  have  manifested  themselves 
most  fully,  and  accomplished  the  greatest  results.  Though 
as  a  rule  Catholic  countries  have  lagged  behind,  every 
Christian  nation  now  provides  with  tolerable  complete- 
ness for  popular  instruction.  Greece  and  Italy  have 
adopted  in  the  present  century  systems  of  education 


EDUCATION  IN  THE  NINETEENTH  CENTURY.        291 

more  comprehensive  and  useful  than  were  ever  contem- 
plated by  Plato  and  Quintilian.  Germany,  France,  Bel- 
gium, Denmark,  Norway,  Sweden,  Spain,  Portugal — all 
have  at  present  some  system  of  popular  education ;  and 
most  of  them  have  adopted  the  system  of  compulsory 
attendance.  During  the  past  two  decades  England  has 
shown  great  interest  in  popular  education,  and  granted 
annually,  in  connection  with  a  system  of  thorough  in- 
spection, ever-increasing  subsidies  to  public  schools. 
The  educational  systems  of  several  of  these  countries 
will  be  considered  more  in  detail. 

(D.)   GERMANY. 

In  no  country  has  education  received  more  attention, 
or  produced,  upon  the  whole,  better  results,  than  in  Ger- 
many. Though  in  subjection  to  the  social  conditions 
belonging  to  a  monarchical  form  of  government,  the 
German  system  embodies  many  points  of  excellence.  In 
the  science  and  history  of  education,  the  Germans  are  in 
the  lead.  The  principles  of  Pestalozzi,  which  found 
able  advocates  in  all  parts  of  Germany,  have  permeated 
the  primary  schools,  and  given  a  great  impulse  to  the 
professional  training  of  teachers.  Teaching  is  recog- 
nized as  a  profession ;  and  no  one,  who  has  not  received 
special  training  and  passed  a  satisfactory  examination,  is 
allowed  to  teach  in  either  public  or  private  schools.  As 
a  result  of  this  rigorous  system,  Germany  has  a  body  of 
teachers  admirably  qualified  for  their  work. 

The  existing  interest  in  primary  education  in  Ger- 
many dates  from  the  opening  of  the  present  century. 
Humiliated  by  the  wars  of  Napoleon,  Germany  felt  the 
necessity  of  developing  greater  internal  strength.  Fred- 


292     FROM  TnE  REFORMATION  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME. 

erick  William  III.  addressed  the  following  wise  words 
to  the  German  people :  "  We  have  indeed  lost  in  terri- 
tory, and  fallen  in  external  power  and  splendor,  but  we 
must  see  to  it  that  we  gain  in  internal  power  and  splen- 
dor ;  and  hence  it  is  my  earnest  desire  that  the  greatest 
attention  be  given  to  the  instruction  of  the  people." 
He  was  nobly  seconded  by  able  ministers,  and  the  pres- 
ent educational  system,  in  its  essential  features,  was  de- 
vised. 

Education  is  an  interest  wholly  in  the  hands  of  the 
government.  The  general  supervision  of  educational 
affairs  is  intrusted  to  a  Minister  of  Public  Instruction, 
who  is  assisted  by  school  boards  in  the  several  provinces, 
regencies,  and  districts  of  the  state.  The  course  of  study, 
the  text-books  used,  the  methods  of  instruction,  the  ex- 
amination and  appointment  of  teachers,  the  supervision 
of  the  schools— every  thing  is  directly  or  indirectly  under 
the  control  of  the  general  government.  The  school- 
buildings,  many  of  which  were  constructed  for  other 
purposes  during  the  last  century,  are  generally  massive 
structures  of  stone  or  brick.  Defective  in  ventilation 
and  light,  and  furnished  only  with  plain  and  often  un- 
comfortable desks,  these  buildings  are  not  models  of 
school-architecture.  The  schools  are  well  supplied  with 
maps,  charts,  globes,  and  other  apparatus,  which  the 
teacher  employs  judiciously  in  giving  instruction. 

The  educational  system  of  Germany  embraces,  under 
various  names,  three  grades  of  schools,  all  of  which  have 
received  a  high  degree  of  development.  The  primary 
schools  (  Volksschulen},  which  are  brought  within  reach 
of  the  whole  population,  give  instruction  in  religion 
(catechism  and  Bible  history),  reading,  writing,  arith- 


EDUCATION  IN  THE  NINETEENTH  CENTURY.        293 

metic,  geography,  natural  history,  singing,  and  gym- 
nastics. The  instruction,  which  is  imparted  in  accord- 
ance with  recent  scientific  methods,  is  very  thorough. 
All  children  are  required  to  enter  school  at  seven  years 
of  age,  and  to  continue  their  attendance  till  fourteen,  at 
which  time  they  are  usually  confirmed  as  members  of 
the  state  Church.  Through  the  successful  enforcement 
of  the  compulsory  system,  the  percentage  of  illiteracy  is 
lower  in  Germany  than  in  any  other  country  of  Europe. 
In  18  72  the  number  of  illiterates  in  the  army  was  4.6 
per  cent,  and  in  the  navy  2.3  per  cent,  while  the  corre- 
sponding numbers  in  France  were  23  and  14  per  cent. 
In  Saxony,  Thuringia,  Baden,  and  some  other  portions 
of  Germany,  the  illiterates  among  the  recruits  do  not 
amount  to  one  per  cent ;  and  out  of  six  thousand  re- 
cruits in  Wiirtemberg  there  was  only  one  that  could  not 
read.  Primary  instruction  is  much  better  among  the 
Protestants  than  among  the  Catholics. 

Secondary  instruction  is  given  in  the  gymnasia  and 
the  real-schools.  The  gymnasia,  which  give  great 
prominence  to  Latin  and  Greek,  are  designed  to  pre- 
pare students  for  the  university  and  the  professions. 
The  real-schools,  which  attach  importance  to  the  mother- 
tongue,  mathematics,  natural  sciences,  and  modern  lan- 
guages, aim  to  fit  their  students  for  the  ordinary  busi- 
ness callings  of  life.  As  the  gymnasia  are  humanistic 
and  the  real-schools  practical,  they  have  been  the  occa- 
sion of  a  warm  conflict  between  educators  of  these  two 
tendencies.  The  conflict  is  still  going  on ;  but  mean- 
while, in  accordance  with  the  practical  spirit  of  the  age, 
the  real-schools  have  been  constantly  increasing  in  num- 
ber and  popularity.  The  studies  in  these  two  classes  of 


294:     FROM  THE  REFORMATION  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME. 


schools  vary  somewhat  in  different  parts  of  Germany ; 
but  the  courses  pursued  at  present  in  the  Prussian  gym- 
nasia and  real-schools  are  fairly  representative  : 


PRUSSIAN  GYMNASIUM. 


STUDIES. 

< 

2 

3 

a 
'a 

<y 

I 

ii 

g* 

if 
|H 

Unter- 
Secunda. 

Ober- 
Secunda. 

si 

-S-j- 
c-r 
t>~ 

iS 

|£ 

| 

o 

Rcli°rion    .              

8 

9, 

9 

9 

9 

9 

9 

9 

9 

19 

German  

8 

9, 

9, 

?, 

9, 

9, 

9 

3 

3 

9] 

Latin  

9 

9 

9 

9 

9 

8 

R 

8 

8 

7Y 

Greek  

7 

7 

7 

7 

6 

fi 

40 

French  

4 

f> 

9 

9 

9, 

9 

9 

9 

°1 

History  and  geography  

3 

8 

4 

3 

R 

3 

3 

3 

3 

"8 

Mathematics          

4 

4 

4 

8 

3 

4 

4 

4 

4 

34 

Natural  history  

9, 

9, 

9, 

9, 

9, 

10 

Physics  

9, 

9, 

9, 

9, 

8 

Writin"  

9 

9, 

4 

Drawin"           .  . 

9 

9 

9 

^ 

fi 

Hours  per  week  

9,8 

80 

30 

30 

30 

30 

30 

30 

30 

PRUSSIAN  REAL-SCHOOL. 


STUDIES. 

00 

A 

S3 
1 

A 

t- 
d 

9 

Unter- 
Tertia. 

C3 

i.V 

IH 

Unter- 
Secunda. 

Ober- 
Secunda. 

Unter- 
Prima. 

a 

<•! 

!* 

3 
S 

Religion  

3 

9, 

9, 

9, 

9, 

9, 

9, 

9, 

9, 

19 

German  

3 

3 

8 

8 

3 

8 

3 

3 

3 

?i7 

Latin  

8 

7 

7 

6 

6 

5 

5 

5 

fi 

54 

English  

4 

4 

3 

3 

3 

3 

90 

5 

5 

4 

4 

4 

4 

4 

4 

34 

History  and  geography  

3 

3 

4 

4 

4 

3 

3 

3 

8" 

SO 

Mathematics.  

5 

4 

5 

5 

5 

5 

5 

5 

5 

44 

Natural  history  

9, 

9, 

9, 

9, 

9, 

9 

19! 

3 

3 

3 

3 

19 

Chemistry  .   .                  . 

9, 

9 

9 

fi 

Writin^ 

9 

9 

4 

Drawing  -  .  .    .  . 

9, 

9 

9, 

9, 

9, 

9 

9, 

9 

9 

18 

Hours  per  week  

9,8 

30 

30 

39, 

3?, 

3?, 

39, 

39 

39, 

The  course  of  instruction  in  both  the  gymnasia  and 


EDUCATION  IN  THE  NINETEENTH  CENTURY.        295 

the  real-schools  extends  through  nine  years  Pupils  en- 
ter at  nine  years  of  age,  and  complete  the  course  at 
eighteen  or  nineteen ;  but  many  give  up  their  studies 
at  fourteen.  As  a  rule,  they  do  not  room  or  board  in 
the  school-buildings;  and,  when  coming  from  a  dis- 
tance, they  are  placed  under  the  care  of  some  trust- 
worthy resident  of  the  town  or  city,  who  watches  over 
their  studies  and  conduct  out  of  school  hours.  The 
secondary  schools  charge  a  tuition  fee,  which  varies 
from  about  five  dollars  to  twenty-seven  dollars,  accord- 
ing to  class. 

The  normal  schools  of  Germany  are  excellent.  The 
higher  education  of  woman  is  left  chiefly  to  private  in- 
stitutions. Though  the  courses  of  study  vary  consider- 
ably, the  following  curriculum  of  the  Koyal  Augusta 
School  for  young  ladies  in  Berlin  will  serve  to  indicate 
the  general  range  of  instruction.  The  prominence 
given  to  the  mother-tongue  is  especially  commendable : 


STUDIES. 

Classes  and  number  of  hours  per  week. 

VIIL 

VIL 

VI. 

V. 

IV. 

III. 

II. 

I. 

Religion           

3 
12 

8 
9 
2 

3 

7 
3 

4 
6 
4 

2 
6 
6 

2 
6 
6 

2 

6 
6 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 

2 
2 
4 

2 
6 
6 
2 

2 
2 
2 
2 

2 
2 

4 

English 

Arithmetic  

4 

4 

4 

4 

2 

2 
2 
2 

2 
2 
2 
2 

2 
2 
4 

Penmanship  

3 

4 

2 

2 
2 

2 

4 

2 
2 
2 
4 

Vocal  music  

2 
4 

Needle-work  

4 

4 

Total          .... 

26 

26 

25 

30 

30 

80 

82 

82 

296     -FROM  THE  REFORMATION  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME. 

The  universities,  both  for  comprehensiveness  and 
thoroughness  of  instruction,  stand  pre-eminent.  Their 
large  number  is  due  mainly  to  the  former  subdivisions 
of  Germany  into  separate  states,  each  of  which  was  am- 
bitious to  maintain  an  institution  for  superior  instruc- 
tion. Many  of  the  universities  possess  a  considerable 
endowment ;  but  most  of  them  receive  large  subsidies 
from  the  state.  The  studies  are  ranged  under  the  four 
faculties  of  theology,  law,  medicine,  and  philosophy, 
the  latter  comprising,  besides  philosophy  proper,  nat- 
ural science,  mathematics,  political  economy,  history, 
geography,  literature,  and  philology.  A  rector,  elected 
annually  by  the  professors,  is  charged  with  the  adminis- 
tration of  the  affairs  of  the  university.  German  stu- 
dents can  not  become  full  members  without  having 
completed  the  course  of  a  gymnasium  or  real-school. 
The  universities  founded  during  the  present  century 
are  as  follows:  Berlin,  1810;  Munich,  1826;  Breslau, 
1811;  Bonn,  1818;  and  Strasburg,  1872.  The  Uni- 
versity of  Berlin  is  the  largest,  with  a  faculty  of  two 
hundred  and  fifteen  professors,  and  a  yearly  attendance 
of  about  five  thousand  students. 

(E.)  FRANCE. 

The  interest  in  popular  education  in  France  dates 
from  the  Kevolution  of  1789.  The  leaders  of  that  move- 
ment were  inspired  with  democratic  ideas,  and  at  the 
same  time  they  believed  that  popular  intelligence  was 
necessary  for  the  perpetuity  of  the  republic.  Hence,  the 
Convention  in  1793  not  only  ordered  the  establishment 
of  elementary  schools  throughout  France,  but  also  made 


EDUCATION  IN  THE  NINETEENTH  CENTURY.        297 

attendance  upon  them  compulsory.  But  discord  at 
home  and  wars  abroad,  during  the  years  immediately 
succeeding,  prevented  the  execution  of  this  wise  de- 
cree. 

Having  crowned  himself  emperor,  Napoleon  did  not 
remain  indifferent  to  the  subject  of  general  education. 
In  1806  he  established  a  system  of  great  compactness, 
which  forms  the  basis  of  the  excellent  laws  now  in  oper- 
ation. He  united  all  the  teaching  forces  of  the  country 
into  one  body,  which  he  called  the  University  of  France. 
This  university,  whose  affairs  were  administered  by  a 
grand  master,  assisted  by  a  university  council,  was  di- 
vided into  three  branches:  Primary  instruction,  pro- 
vided in  the  elementary  schools ;  secondary  instruction, 
provided  in  the  lyceums  and  colleges ;  and  superior  in- 
struction, given  by  the  faculties  of  arts,  medicine,  law, 
and  theology.  France  was  divided  into  a  number  of 
large  districts  called  academies,  which  were  presided 
over  by  a  rector,  assisted  by  an  academic  council.  Schools 
under  local  supervision  were  to  be  established  in  each 
community.  But  Napoleon  became  too  much  absorbed 
in  ambitious  schemes  of  conquest  to  put  his  system  into 
complete  operation. 

Under  the  Restoration,  popular  education  languished. 
Though  the  system  of  Napoleon  was  retained  in  its  es- 
sential features,  it  was  administered  with  a  narrow  sec- 
tarian and  monarchical  spirit.  Under  the  cover  of  zeal 
for  moral  and  religious  instruction,  education  was  placed 
in  large  measure  in  the  hands  of  priests.  A  priest,  M. 
de  Freyssinous,  was  called  to  the  office  of  grand  master 
of  the  university.  In  a  circular  announcing  his  appoint- 
ment, he  sets  forth  the  principles  directing  his  adminis- 


298     FROM  THE  REFORMATION  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME. 

tration :  "  In  calling  to  the  head  of  public  education  a 
man  invested  with  a  sacred  character,  his  Majesty  de- 
clares to  all  France  how  much  he  desires  that  the  youth 
of  his  kingdom  be  brought  up  in  religious  and  mo- 
narchical sentiments.  .  .  .  The  true  Frenchman  never 
separates  love  of  his  king  from  love  of  his  country,  nor 
obedience  to  magistrates  from  attachment  to  the  laws 
and  institutions  which  the  king  has  given  his  people." 
While  Germany  was  making  vigorous  efforts  to  re- 
trieve its  fortune  through  the  intellectual  development 
of  its  people,  France,  in  the  hands  of  a  reactionary 
government,  saw  its  educational  progress  effectually 
thwarted. 

With  the  government  of  Louis  Philippe  after  the 
Eevolution  of  1830,  there  came  a  change  for  the  better. 
The  system  of  Napoleon,  as  transmitted  from  the  gov- 
ernment of  the  Restoration,  was  administered  with  a 
vigorous  and  progressive  spirit.  The  schools  were  eman- 
cipated from  priestly  control.  Each  district  or  com- 
mune was  required  to  have  a  school,  and,  in  order  that 
qualified  teachers  might  not  be  wanting,  normal  schools 
were  encouraged  and  multiplied.  School-houses  were 
erected ;  scientific  methods  of  instruction  were  intro- 
duced; an  educational  interest  was  awakened  among 
the  people.  The  basis  of  popular  education  was  firmly 
established.  For  the  encouragement  of  primary  teach- 
ers in  their  unappreciated  labors,  Guizot,  as  Minister  of 
Public  Instruction,  addressed  them  the  following  beauti- 
ful words :  "  I  know  full  well  that  the  care  of  the  law 
will  never  succeed  in  rendering  the  simple  profession  of 
district  teacher  as  attractive  as  it  is  useful.  Society  can 
not  make  a  sufficient  return  to  him  who  is  devoted  to 


EDUCATION    IN  THE  NINETEENTH  CENTURY.        299 

this  work.  There  is  no  fortune  to  be  won,  there  is 
scarcely  a  reputation  to  be  acquired  in  the  discharge  of 
his  onerous  duties.  Destined  to  see  his  life  pass  away 
in  monotonous  toil,  sometimes  even  to  encounter  the  in- 
justice and  ingratitude  of  ignorance,  he  would  become 
disheartened,  and  perhaps  succumb,  if  he  did  not  draw 
his  strength  and  courage  elsewhere  than  in  the  prospect 
of  an  immediate  and  purely  personal  interest.  It  is 
necessary  that  he  be  sustained  and  animated  by  a  pro- 
found sense  of  the  moral  importance  of  his  labors ;  that 
the  austere  pleasure  of  having  served  men  and  contrib- 
uted secretly  to  the  public  weal  become  the  worthy  re- 
ward which  his  conscience  alone  gives  him.  It  is  his 
glory  to  pretend  to  nothing  beyond  his  obscure  and  la- 
borious condition ;  to  exhaust  his  strength  in  sacrifices 
scarcely  noticed  by  those  who  profit  by  them ;  in  a 
word,  to  labor  for  men,  and  expect  his  reward  from  God 
alone." 

Under  the  second  republic,  the  school  laws  were  sub- 
jected, in  1850,  to  a  comprehensive  revision  which,  with 
recent  minor  modifications,  resulted  in  the  system  now 
in  force.  There  is  a  graduated  and  thorough  system  of 
superintendence.  The  highest  educational  authority  is 
the  Superior  Council,  which  is  presided  over  by  the 
Minister  of  Public  Instruction.  The  eighty-seven  de- 
partments or  counties  of  France  are  divided  into  seven- 
teen districts,  or  academies,  in  each  of  which  an  aca- 
demic council,  under  the  direction  of  the  Minister  of 
Public  Instruction,  has  charge  of  educational  affairs.  In 
each  department  or  county  there  is  another  council  com- 
posed of  the  prefect,  the  inspector  of  the  academy,  the 
inspector  of  primary  instruction,  and  several  others; 


300     FROM  THE  REFORMATION  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME. 

while  in  each  canton  or  commune  a  local  board,  with 
the  mayor  at  its  head,  has  supervision  over  all  the 
schools,  both  public  and  private.  Each  commune  of 
live  hundred  inhabitants  is  required  to  have  a  public 
school  in  which  the  following  subjects  are  taught :  Moral 
and  civil  duties,  reading,  writing,  the  elements  of  the 
French  language  and  literature,  history  and  geography 
(particularly  of  France),  arithmetic,  the  elements  of  nat- 
ural science  and  its  applications,  the  principles  of  de- 
signing, modeling,  and  music,  gymnastics,  military  ex- 
ercises for  boys,  and  needle-work  for  girls.  The  schools 
are  entirely  free,  and  in  1882  the  instruction  of  children 
between  the  ages  of  seven  and  fourteen  was  made  com- 
pulsory. Any  Frenchman  twenty-one  years  of  age,  who 
has  passed  a  satisfactory  examination,  is  allowed  to  teach. 
Each  department  is  required  to  have  two  normal  schools, 
one  for  male  and  one  for  female  teachers,  with  a  course 
of  study  extending  through  three  years.  Since  the  hu- 
miliating defeat  of  1870-"T1,  the  French  Government 
has  been  making  vigorous  efforts  to  promote  popular 
education;  and  in  no  other  country  has  there  been, 
during  the  last  decade,  such  marked  educational  prog- 
ress. 

Secondary  instruction  is  provided  by  the  lyceums 
and  communal  colleges.  Previous  to  1852  the  lyceums, 
which  correspond  to  the  German  gymnasia,  were  exclu- 
sively literary,  Latin  and  Greek  being  the  chief  subjects 
of  instruction.  Since  that  time  they  have  undergone 
important  changes  which  bring  them  into  closer  relation 
with  the  present  age.  The  classes  and  studies  of  the 
lyceums  are  as  follows : 


EDUCATION  IN  THE  NINETEENTH  CENTURY.        3Q1 


PLAN  OP  STUDIES  FOR  LYCEUM. 


STUDIES. 

ELEMENTARY 
DIVISION. 

GRAMMAR 
DIVISION. 

SUPERIOR 
DIVISION. 

a 

i 

49 
39J 
204 

36 
42 

30 
8 
20 

H 

SJji 

."  O 
OQ 

3 
10 

-i 

SJ-2 

3 

10 

£  2 

0^ 

M 

O  « 

4 
4 
5 

4 

3 
3 

i- 

5 
4 
4 

4 
6 
3 

i* 

N 

3 
9 

1 
8 
2 

24 

French,  nine  years  

10 

10 

8 

3 
6 
6 

3 
3 
2 

3 
5 
5 

4 
3 
3 

History  and  Geography, 
ten  years  

4 
4 
4 

4 
4 
4 

4 
4 
4 

3 
3 
3 

3 
4 
3 

Mathematics  and  Science, 
ten  years    .      .          . 

English   or  German,  ten 
years  

Drawing  

2 
24 

2 
24 

2 

22 

2 

24 

2 

25 

2 
25 

2 

25 

2 

25 

2 

27 

Hours  per  week  .  .  . 

In  the  superior  division  a  system  of  bifurcation  has 
been  introduced,  one  course  giving  prominence  to  the 
ancient  languages,  the  other  to  mathematics  and  the 
natural  sciences.  The  studies  common  to  both  courses 
are  French,  history,  geography,  German  or  English,  and 
logic.  The  communal  colleges,  which  greatly  outnum- 
ber the  lyceums,  differ  from  them  only  in  having  less 
extended  curricula. 

Superior  instruction  is  given  by  the  five  faculties  of 
theology,  law,  medicine,  philosophy,  and  science.  They 
are  not  united  in  one  body,  as  is  the  case  in  the  univer- 
sities of  Germany  and  the  United  States,  but  maintain 
a  separate  existence.  The  faculties  of  theology  are  estab- 
lished at  Paris,  Aix,  Bordeaux,  Lyons,  Rouen,  Montau- 
ban ;  those  of  law  at  Paris,  Toulouse,  Aix,  Caen,  Dijon, 
Poitiers,  E-heims,  Bordeaux,  Grenoble,  Douai,  Nancy ; 
those  of  science  at  Paris,  Besancon,  Kennes,  Caen,  Bor- 


302     FROM  THE  REFORMATION  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME. 

deaux,  Clermont,  Poitiers,  Dijon,  Grenoble,  Lille,  Nancy, 
Lyons,  Marseilles,  Montpellier,  Toulouse ;  and  those  of 
literature  at  Paris,  Aix,  Besangon,  Bordeaux,  Caen,  Cler- 
mont, Dijon,  Douai,  Grenoble,  Lyons,  Montpellier,  Poi- 
tiers, Rennes,  Toulouse,  Nancy.  In  addition  to  giving 
instruction,  these  faculties  conduct  examinations,  and 
confer  the  degrees  of  bachelor,  licentiate,  and  doctor. 

(F.)  ENGLAND. 

In  England  popular  education  has  made  less  progress 
than  in  any  other  Protestant  country  of  Europe.  The 
explanation  of  this  fact  is  to  be  found  in  the  conserva- 
tive character  of  the  people,  and  the  aristocratic  organi- 
zation of  society.  It  is  only  in  recent  years  that  the 
masses  have  become  prominent.  Hence,  it  has  hap- 
pened that,  while  popular  education  was  left  to  indi- 
vidual effort  and  denominational  zeal,  the  children  of 
the  wealthy  and  the  noble  have  enjoyed  the  advantages 
of  the  great  preparatory  schools— Eton,  Winchester, 
Westminster,  St.  Paul's,  Merchant  Taylors',  Charter- 
house, Harrow,  Rugby,  Shrewsbury,  and  Christ's  Hos- 
pital. 

These  preparatory  or  endowed  schools,  which  have 
been  justly  celebrated  in  English  education,  were  found- 
ed, with  three  exceptions,  in  the  sixteenth  century. 
They  are  large  boarding-schools,  whose  courses  of  study 
raise  them  to  the  rank  of  the  French  lyceum  or  the 
German  gymnasium.  In  accordance  with  the  conserva- 
tive character  of  English  institutions,  it  is  but  recently 
that  these  schools  have  been  much  affected  by  modern 
educational  progress.  At  present  they  are  losing  their 
mediaeval  character  before  the  pressure  for  reform ;  and 


EDUCATION  IN  THE  NINETEENTH  CENTURY.        3Q3 

though  Latin  and  Greek  still  remain  the  chief  subjects 
of  study,  increasing  attention  is  being  paid  to  the 
mother-tongue,  the  natural  sciences,  and  the  modern  lan- 
guages. The  methods  of  instruction  are  becoming  less 
mechanical ;  and  the  principle  of  authority,  which  for- 
merly repressed  a  spirit  of  independence,  is  now  giving 
place  to  freedom  of  thought  and  investigation.  Ath- 
letics are  cultivated  with  great  zeal.  The  system  of 
fagging,  which  requires  students  of  the  lower  classes  to 
perform  menial  services  for  those  of  the  upper  classes, 
still  exists.  "  The  best  friends  of  these  schools,"  says 
Howard  Staunton,  "confess  that  they  contain  much 
that  is  pedantic,  much  that  is  puerile,  much  that  is 
antiquated,  much  that  is  obsolete,  much  that  is  obstruct- 
ive, and  not  a  little  that  is  barbarous;  and  that,  like 
other  English  institutions,  they  are  apt  to  confound 
stolidity  with  solidity.  Let,  then,  abuses  be  removed, 
let  absolute  obscurantism  cease,  and  let  such  improve- 
ments be  adopted  as  commend  themselves,  not  to  super- 
ficial progress,  but  to  the  most  exalted  wisdom."  In 
addition  to  these  endowed  schools,  there  are  many  other 
schools  and  colleges  devoted  to  secondary  instruction. 

The  Universities  of  Oxford  and  Cambridge,  whoso 
origin  is  lost  in  the  darkness  of  the  middle  ages,  are 
among  the  most  celebrated  in  the  world.  They  are 
similar  in  organization ;  Oxford  comprising  twenty-four 
separate  colleges,  and  Cambridge  seventeen.  Each  col- 
lege has  a  separate  organization  of  its  own,  presided 
over  by  a  president,  rector,  or  provost,  while  all  are 
under  a  central  or  university  government  administered 
by  a  chancellor,  in  conjunction  with  a  council  elected  by 
the  several  colleges.  The  universities  are  maintained  by 


304: 

munificent  endowments,  the  gifts  of  benefactors  and  the 
founders  of  colleges.  Candidates  for  graduation  must 
reside  in  a  college  for  three  academic  years ;  when,  upon 
passing  a  satisfactory  examination  before  the  university 
examiners,  they  receive  their  degree.  Oxford  and  Cam- 
bridge are  both  very  conservative,  and  still  merit  in 
some  degree  the  criticisms  of  Bacon  and  Milton.  Dur- 
ing the  present  century  other  institutions  for  superior 
instruction  have  been  founded,  chief  among  which  is 
the  University  of  London,  created  by  royal  charter  in 

1836. 

Prior  to  the  beginning  of  the  present  century,  the 
education  of  the  masses  of  England  was  almost  entirely 
neglected.  To  Kobert  Eaikes,  the  founder  of  the  Sun- 
day-school, belongs  the  honor  of  having  first  awakened 
an  interest  in  popular  education.  This  he  did  partly 
through  his  paper,  the  "  Gloucester  Journal,"  in  which 
he  maintained  that  ignorance  was  the  principal  source 
of  vice  among  the  people,  and  partly  through  his  actual 
labors  for  the  instruction  of  the  neglected  children  of 
his  town.  His  efforts  led  to  the  establishment  of  numer- 
ous Sunday-schools,  which  form  the  beginning  of  popu- 
lar instruction.  He  died  in  1811. 

The  labors  of  two  other  educators,  following  the 
efforts  of  Kaikes,  gave  an  additional  impulse  to  popular 
instruction.  These  were  Andrew  Bell  and  Joseph  Lan- 
caster, who  independently  of  each  other  invented  the 
monitorial  system  of  teaching.  Bell,  who  was  born  at 
St.  Andrews,  Scotland,  in  1753,  went  to  India  in  1787, 
where  he  was  appointed  superintendent  of  a  school  for 
the  orphan  children  of  British  soldiers.  Unable  to  pro- 
cure suitable  teachers,  he  fell  upon  the  plan,  sometimes 


EDUCATION  IN  THE  NINETEENTH  CENTURY.        305 

adopted  in  the  native  schools  of  India,  of  employing 
advanced  pupils  as  instructors.  As  the  plan  succeeded 
beyond  expectation,  he  published  an  account  of  it  on  his 
return  to  England,  and  in  1807  established  in  London  a 
school  in  which  the  monitorial  (or  Madras)  system  was 
employed.  The  experiment  was  successful ;  and  as  many 
influential  persons,  especially  among  the  clergy,  became 
interested  in  the  system,  the  National  Society  was  formed 
in  connection  with  the  Church  of  England  for  the  pur- 
pose of  establishing  schools  throughout  the  British  do- 
minions. The  work  of  this  society,  under  the  direction 
of  Bell,  was  prosecuted  with  great  vigor,  and  in  less 
than  a  dozen  years  one  thousand  schools  had  been  opened, 
with  an  attendance  of  more  than  two  hundred  thousand 
children. 

This  remarkable  activity  was  due  in  part  to  the 
labors  of  Joseph  Lancaster,  a  Quaker.  Having  es- 
tablished a  school  in  London  in  1798,  he  found  it 
necessary  to  reduce  his  expenses ;  and,  as  a  means  of 
doing  this,  he  hit  upon  the  monitorial  system  which 
Bell  had  already  employed  at  Madras.  His  school  met 
with  great  popular  favor,  and  soon  numbered  one  thou- 
sand pupils.  It  was  visited  by  the  royal  family,  on 
which  occasion  the  king  said  to  Lancaster,  "  I  wish 
that  every  child  in  my  kingdom  were  able  to  read  the 
Bible."  In  view  of  the  popularity  and  success  of  the 
school,  an  association  of  Dissenters,  known  as  the  Brit- 
ish and  Foreign  School  Society,  was  organized  for  the 
promulgation  of  the  system  of  Lancaster;  and  the 
rivalry  between  this  and  the  National  Society  of  the 
Established  Church  led  to  extraordinary  efforts  in  found- 
ing popular  schools. 


306  FROM  THE  REFORMATION  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME. 

It  was  not  till  1818  that  the  English  Government 
concerned  itself  about  education.     At  that  time  a  com- 
mittee was  appointed  to  inspect  the  public  schools  for 
the  upper  and  middle  classes,  and  report  upon  their 
condition.     Many  evils  were  exposed,   and  the  way 
opened  for  subsequent  reforms.     The  first  annual  grant 
for  education  was  made  in  1834.    The  movement  toward 
popular  education  received  a  noteworthy  impulse  from 
the  educational  conference  held  in  London  in  1857  un- 
der the  presidency  of  the  Prince  Consort.     In  1858  a 
commission  was    appointed   by  Parliament  to  report 
upon  the  state  of  popular  education.     The  interest  thus 
manifested  by  the  government  in  popular  education 
culminated  in  1870  in  a  statute  which  ordered  that 
"there  shall  be  provided  for  every  school  district  a 
sufficient  amount  of  accommodation  in  public  element- 
ary schools  available  for  all  the  children  resident  in 
such  district,  for  whose  elementary  education  efficient 
and  suitable  provision  is  not  otherwise  made."     School 
boards,  elected  by  all  tax-payers,  including  women,  were 
established  to  carry  out  the  provisions  of  this  law ;  and 
they  were  further  invested  with  authority  to  compel 
parents  to  send  their  children  to  school  between  the 
ages  of  five  and  thirteen.     This  new  law  has  been  very 
successful.     A  high  percentage  of  attendance  has  been 
attained,  and  an  able  body  of  trained  teachers  provided  ; 
and  the  present  educational  progress  of  England  will 
compare  favorably  with  that  of  any  other  Protestant 
country. 

(G.)   THE   UNITED  STATES. 

In  the  United  States  the  sovereignty  is  vested,  not 
in  the  few,  but  in  the  many    The  masses  are  called 


EDUCATION  IN  THE  NINETEENTH   CENTURY.        307 

upon  to  consider  every  kind  of  social  and  political  ques- 
tion affecting  the  welfare  of  the  country.  The  princi- 
ples of  human  liberty ;  schemes  for  internal  improve- 
ment; questions  of  finance  and  education;  our  rela- 
tions with  other  countries  —  these  are  some  of  the 
weighty  matters  brought  before  the  popular  mind. 
At  the  polls,  where  every  man  has  an  equal  voice,  the 
decisions  are  made,  and  the  policy  of  the  government 
determined. 

These  facts  necessitate  a  considerable  degree  of  pop- 
ular intelligence.  The  illiterate,  clearly  incapable  of 
performing  the  high  duties  imposed  on  American  citi- 
zens, remain  ciphers  in  society,  or  become  the  dangerous 
took  of  designing  politicians.  In  some  form,  popular 
education  is  necessary  both  to  a  wise  administration  of 
the  government  and  to  its  perpetuity.  "  Promote,"  said 
"Washington,  in  his  Farewell  Address,  "  as  an  object  of 
primary  importance,  institutions  for  the  general  diffusion 
of  knowledge.  In  proportion  as  the  structure  of  a  gov- 
ernment gives  force  to  public  opinion,  it  is  essential  that 
public  opinion  should  be  enlightened." 

The  educational  history  of  the  United  States  natu- 
rally divides  itself  into  the  colonial  and  national  periods. 
The  New  England  and  the  Southern  colonies  present  a 
striking  difference  in  their  educational  development. 
This  difference  had  its  origin  partly  in  the  dissimilar 
character  and  antecedents  of  the  colonists,  and  partly  in 
the  physical  conditions  of  the  two  sections.  In  New 
England  education  early  received  attention,  and  pro- 
duced excellent  results ;  in  the  South  it  was  neglected. 
As  a  result,  the  Southern  colonies,  in  proportion  to  popu- 
lation and  natural  advantages,  exhibited  a  slower  devel- 


308      FROM  THE  REFORMATION  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME. 

opment,  losing  ground  that  has  not  yet  been  recovered. 
As  was  the  case  in  Europe  during  the  corresponding 
period,  the  theological  influence  in  education  was  very 
strong ;  but,  at  the  same  time,  the  peculiar  circumstances 
of  establishing  a  home  in  an  unsubdued  wilderness,  and 
of  laying  the  foundation  of  a  great  republic,  early  gave 
the  schools  vigorous  life  and  a  practical  bearing. 

(1.)  Colonial  Period. 

In  Virginia  popular  education  was  almost  wholly 
neglected  during  the  colonial  period.  This  was  owing 
partly  to  the  aristocratic  spirit  which  existed  in  the 
colony  from  the  beginning,  and  partly  to  the  scattered 
condition  of  the  population.  While  in  New  England 
the  people  naturally  collected  in  towns,  in  Virginia  the 
colonists,  devoted  to  agriculture  and  seeking  to  repro- 
duce the  conditions  of  the  mother-country,  settled  on 
large  plantations.  For  half  a  century  after  the  founding 
of  Jamestown,  schools  were  almost  unknown.  Educa- 
tion was  confined  to  the  parental  roof,  and  successive 
generations  grew  up  in  comparative  ignorance.  Sir  Will- 
iam Berkeley  wrote  in  1671 :  "I  thank  God  there  are 
no  free  schools  nor  printing,  and  I  hope  we  shall  not 
have  these  for  a  hundred  years ;  for  learning  has  brought 
disobedience,  and  heresy  and  sects  into  the  world,  and 
printing  has  divulged  them  and  libels  against  the  best 
government.  God  keep  us  from  both  ! " 

The  apathy  or  hostility  prevailing  in  regard  to  popu- 
lar schools  did  not  exist  to  the  same  degree  in  reference 
to  the  higher  education.  From  an  early  date  the  question 
of  establishing  a  college  had  been  repeatedly  discussed. 
Finally,  after  the  lapse  of  more  than  three  quarters  of 


EDUCATION  IN  THE  NINETEENTH   CENTURY.        309 

a  century  from  the  time  the  subject  was  first  broached, 
the  College  of  William  and  Mary  was  founded  in  1692. 
When  the  enterprise  began  to  assume  definite  form,  a 
commendable  interest,  both  at  home  and  in  England, 
was  manifested  in  its  success.  The  Lieutenant-Governor 
headed  the  subscription-list  with  a  generous  gift,  and 
his  example  was  followed  by  other  prominent  members 
of  the  colony.  The  sum  of  twenty-five  hundred  pounds 
having  been  raised,  the  Rev.  James  Blair  was  sent  to 
England  to  solicit  a  charter  for  the  institution.  This 
was  readily  granted ;  and,  as  an  additional  evidence  of 
royal  favor,  the  quit-rents  yet  due  in  the  colony,  amount- 
ing to  nearly  two  thousand  pounds,  were  turned  over  to 
the  college.  For  its  further  support,  twenty  thousand 
acres  of  land  were  set  apart,  and  a  tax  of  a  penny  a 
pound  was  laid  on  all  tobacco  exported  from  Virginia 
and  Maryland  to  other  American  colonies.  The  insti- 
tution was  located  at  Williamsburg,  and  the  Rev.  James 
Blair,  who  had  been  active  in  securing  its  establishment, 
was  chosen  as  its  first  president.  In  the  language  of  the 
charter,  the  college  was  founded  "  to  the  end  that  the 
Church  of  Virginia  may  be  furnished  with  a  seminary 
of  ministers  of  the  gospel,  and  that  the  youth  may  be 
piously  educated  in  good  letters  and  manners,  and  that 
the  Christian  faith  may  be  propagated  among  the  West- 
ern Indians  to  the  glory  of  Almighty  God."  The  course 
of  study  embraced  divinity,  language,  and  natural  philos- 
ophy,—"  a  divinity,"  says  Howison,  "  shaped  and  molded 
at  every  point  by  the  liturgy  and  creed  of  the  English 
Church ;  languages  which  filled  the  college  walls  with 
boys  hating  Greek  and  Latin  grammars;  and  natural 
philosophy,  which  was  just  beginning  to  believe  that 


310   FROM  THE  REFORMATION  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME. 

the  earth  revolved  round  the  sun,  rather  than  the  sun 
round  the  earth."  Such  was  the  founding  of  the  next 
oldest  American  college,  from  whose  walls  have  gone 
forth  many  able  men  influential  in  molding  the  destinies 
of  our  country. 

The  conditions  in  Virginia  were  not  favorable  to 
literary  development.  Descended  in  good  part  from 
noble  families,  the  colonists  brought  with  them  the  aris- 
tocratic feelings  and  religious  intolerance  characteristic 
of  the  royalists  in  England.  The  isolated  condition  of 
the  population  was  unfavorable  to  the  kindling  of  mind ; 
the  absence  of  schools  and  printing-presses  lowered  the 
tone  of  popular  intelligence ;  the  concentration  of  power 
and  influence  in  the  hands  of  an  aristocracy  of  wealthy 
land-owners,  occupied  chiefly  with  pleasure  and  politics, 
was  not  suited  to  awaken  a  literary  spirit.  With  few 
exceptions,  the  writers  of  the  colonial  period  were  born 
or  educated  abroad.  Instead  of  literary  men,  Virginia 
produced  sagacious  politicians,  impassioned  orators,  and 
elegant  country  gentlemen  of  boundless  and  gracious 
hospitality. 

If  the  early  colonists  of  Virginia  were  largely  ad- 
venturers, seeking  their  fortune  in  the  New  World,  the 
Puritans  of  New  England,  fleeing  from  religious  oppres- 
sion, came  to  establish  a  permanent  home.  A  deep 
earnestness,  which  often  ran  into  the  extravagance  of  a 
forbidding  asceticism,  characterized  their  early  history. 
They  counted  no  sacrifice  too  great  to  maintain  the  in- 
tegrity of  their  religious  convictions.  Giving  up  com- 
fort, wealth,  home,  they  faced  the  dangers  of  a  winter 
sea  and  the  inhospitality  of  a  barren  shore.  They  were 
intelligent  and  brave  men,  daring  to  think  for  them- 


EDUCATION  IN  THE  NINETEENTH  CENTURY.        3H 

selves,  and  to  maintain  their  convictions  at  any  cost. 
Many  of  them  had  enjoyed  the  advantages  of  Oxford 
and  Cambridge,  and  brought  with  them  the  precious 
seed  of  learning.  They  had  some  consciousness  of  their 
mission  as  the  founders  of  a  mighty  people,  and,  with 
their  eye  turned  to  future  generations,  they  laid  the 
foundations  broad  and  well.  We  may  smile  at  their 
weaknesses,  their  superstition,  and  their  austerity  of 
life,  but,  underneath  these  peculiarities,  we  discover  a 
strength  of  character,  depth  of  conviction,  and  sincerity 
of  purpose,  that  command  our  respect  and  admiration. 

In  view  of  these  facts,  it  is  not  strange  that  educa- 
tion in  Massachusetts  received  early  attention.  The  ac- 
tion of  the  Puritans  was  prompt  and  vigorous.  Within 
a  few  years  after  the  landing  of  the  Mayflower,  when 
their  number  was  yet  small;  when  their  homes  were 
without  comfort ;  when  they  were  continually  menaced 
by  the  scalping-knife  of  the  savage,  they  established  a 
system  of  schools  that  placed  them  in  advance  of  the 
most  enlightened  portions  of  Europe.  In  1636  the 
General  Court  voted  an  appropriation  of  four  hundred 
pounds  for  the  founding  of  a  school,  which,  after  its 
first  private  benefactor,  the  Rev.  John  Harvard,  received 
the  name  of  Harvard  College.  It  was  cheerfully  and 
liberally  sustained  by  the  New  England  colonies.  It 
was  opened  in  1638,  and  sent  forth  its  first  graduating 
class  in  1642.  The  standard  of  scholarship  was  not  low. 
The  requirements  for  entrance,  in  1643,  were  given  as 
follows :  "  When  any  scholar  is  able  to  understand  Tully, 
or  such  like  classical  author  extempore,  and  make  and 
speak  true  Latin  in  verse  and  prose ;  .  .  .  and  decline 
perfectly  the  paradigms  of  nouns  and  verbs  in  the  Greek 


312      FROM  THE  REFORMATION  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME. 

tongue,  let  him  then,  and  not  before,  be  capable  of  ad- 
mission into  the  college." 

The  most  remarkable  action,  however,  of  the  Mas- 
sachusetts colony  was  in  relation  to  common  schools. 
In  164:7  the  General  Court  passed  the  following  order, 
the  preamble  of  which  recalls  the  powerful  words  of 
Luther :  "  It  being  one  chief  project  of  the  old  deluder, 
Satan,  to  keep  men  from  the  knowledge  of  the  Script- 
ures, as  in  former  times  by  keeping  them  in  an  unknown 
tongue,  so  in  these  latter  times  by  persuading  from  the 
use  of  tongues,  that  so  at  least  the  true  sense  and  mean- 
ing of  the  original  might  be  clouded  by  false  glosses  of 
saint-seeming  deceivers ;  that  learning  may  not  be  buried 
in  the  grave  of  our  fathers  in  the  Church  and  Common- 
wealth, the  Lord  assisting  our  endeavors— 

"  It  is  therefore  ordered,  that  every  township  in  this 
jurisdiction,  after  the  Lord  hath  increased  them  to  the 
number  of  fifty  householders,  shall  then  forthwith  ap- 
point one  within  their  town  to  teach  all  such  children  as 
shall  resort  to  him  to  write  and  read ;  whose  wages  shall 
be  paid,  either  by  the  parents  or  masters  of  such  children, 
or  by  the  inhabitants  in  general,  by  way  of  supply,  as 
the  major  part  of  those  that  order  the  prudentials  of  the 
town  shall  appoint ;  provided,  those  that  send  their  chil- 
dren be  not  oppressed  by  paying  much  more  than  they 
can  have  tl;em  taught  for  in  other  towns ;  and  it  is  fur- 
ther ordered^  that  when  any  town  shall  increase  to  the 
number  of  one  hundred  families  or  householders,  they 
shall  set  up  a  grammar-school,  the  master  thereof  being 
able  to  instruct  youth  so  far  as  they  may  be  fitted  for 
the  university ;  provided,  that  if  any  town  neglect  the 
performance  hereof  above  one  year,  that  every  such  town 


EDUCATION  IN  THE  NINETEENTH  CENTURY.        313 

shall  pay  five  pounds  to  the  next  school  till  they  shall 
perform  this  order." 

The  other  colonies  of  the  North  manifested  the  same 
interest  in  popular  education  shown  by  Massachusetts ; 
those  of  the  South,  following  the  example  of  Virginia, 
left  it  to  individual  effort.     A  public  school  was  estab- 
lished in  Connecticut  as  early  as  1639.     The  first  code 
of  laws  for  this  colony,  published  in  1650,  required  "  the 
selectmen  of  every  town  to  have  a  vigilant  eye  over 
their  brethren  and  neighbors,  to  see  that  none  of  them 
shall  suffer  so  much  barbarism  in  any  of  their  families 
as  not  to  endeavor  to  teach,  by  themselves  or  others, 
their  children  and  apprentices  so  much  learning  as  may 
enable  them  perfectly  to  read  the  English  tongue."    The 
colony  of  Ehode  Island  had  a  public  school  in  1640. 
By  reason  of  their  close  political  relations,  Maine  and 
New  Hampshire  had  substantially  the  educational  sys- 
tem of  Massachusetts.     The  colonists  of  New  Jersey 
were  interested  in  schools  from  the  beginning,  though 
public  action  in  reference  to  education  was  not  taken 
till  1676.     In  that  year  the  "town's  men"  of  Newark 
were  authorized  to  establish  a  school  and  employ  a  com- 
petent teacher  for  one  year.    The  educational  history  of 
Pennsylvania  is  praiseworthy.     The  first  plan  of  pro- 
prietary government,  drawn  up  by  Penn,  in  1682,  makes 
mention  of  public  schools.     In  1683,  the  year  Phila- 
delphia was  founded,  the  council  of  the  province  or- 
dered the  establishment  of  a  school.     A  charter  granted 
by  Penn,  in  1711,  contains  the  following  preamble : 
"  Whereas,  the  prosperity  and  welfare  of  any  people  de- 
pend, in  a  great  measure,  upon  the  good  education  of 
youth,  and  their  early  introduction  in  the  principles  of 

14 


314      FROM  THE  REFORMATION  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME. 

true  religion  and  virtue,  and  qualifying  them  to  serve 
their  country  and  themselves  by  breeding  them  in  read- 
ing, writing,  and  learning  of  languages  and  useful  arts 
and  sciences,  suitable  to  their  sex,  age,  and  degree — 
which  can  not  be  effected,  in  any  manner,  so  well  as  by 
erecting  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS  for  the  purpose  aforesaid." 
Maryland  seems  to  have  made  no  provision  for  public 
schools  till  1723,  when  an  act  was  passed  "  for  the  en- 
couragement of  learning,  and  erecting  schools  in  the 
several  counties  of  this  province."  The  Constitution  of 
North  Carolina,  adopted  in  1Y76,  provided  that  "  a  school 
or  schools  shall  be  established  by  the  Legislature  for  the 
convenient  instruction  of  youth,  with  such  salaries  to 
the  masters,  paid  by  the  public,  as  may  enable  them  to 
instruct  at  low  prices ;  and  that  all  useful  learning  shall 
be  encouraged  in  one  or  more  universities."  No  action 
was  taken  with  reference  to  public  schools  till  1819. 
South  Carolina  and  Georgia  made  no  provision  for  pop- 
ular education  during  the  colonial  period. 

(2.)  National  Period. 

When  the  independence  of  the  United  States  had 
been  achieved,  and  a  Constitution  adopted,  education 
was  left  to  the  care  of  the  separate  States.  Yet  the 
most  influential  leaders  in  the  formation  of  the  new 
government  were  outspoken  advocates  of  education,  and 
interpreted  that  clause  of  the  Constitution  empowering 
Congress  "  to  lay  and  collect  taxes,  .  .  .  and  provide  for 
the  common  defense  and  general  welfare  of  the  United 
States,"  as  authorizing  the  General  Government  to  en- 
courage the  establishment  of  schools.  In  a  message  to 
Congress,  in  1Y90,  Washington,  after  making  sundry 


EDUCATION  IN  THE  NINETEENTH  CENTURY.        315 

other  recommendations  touching  military  organization, 
uniformity  in  currency,  weights  and  measures,  etc.,  con- 
tinued :  "  Nor  am  I  less  persuaded  that  you  will  agree 
with  me  in  opinion,  that  there  is  nothing  which  can 
better  deserve  your  patronage  than  the  promotion  of 
science  and  literature.  Knowledge  is  in  every  country 
the  surest  basis  of  public  happiness.  In  one,  in  which 
the  measures  of  government  receive  their  impression  so 
immediately  from  the  sense  of  the  community,  as  in 
ours,  it  is  proportionably  essential." 

In  his  inaugural  address,  John  Adams  said :  "  The 
wisdom  and  generosity  of  the  Legislature  in  making  lib- 
eral appropriations  in  money  for  the  benefit  of  schools, 
academies,  and  colleges,  is  an  equal  honor  to  them  and 
their  constituents ;  a  proof  of  their  veneration  for  let- 
ters and  science,  and  a  portent  of  great  and  lasting  good 
to  North  and  South  America,  and  to  the  world.  Great 
is  truth — great  is  liberty — great  is  humanity — and  they 
must  and  will  prevail ! " 

Thomas  Jefferson  was  a  friend  to  popular  education. 
"  I  look  to  the  diffusion  of  light  and  education,"  he  said, 
"  as  the  resources  most  to  be  relied  on  for  ameliorating 
the  condition,  promoting  the  virtue,  and  advancing  the 
happiness  of  man.  And  I  do  hope,  in  the  present  spirit 
of  extending  to  the  great  mass  of  mankind  the  blessings 
of  instruction,  I  see  a  prospect  of  great  advancement  in 
the  happiness  of  the  human  race,  and  this  may  proceed 
to  an  indefinite  although  not  an  infinite  degree.  A 
system  of  general  instruction,  which  shall  reach  every 
description  of  our  citizens,  from  the  richest  to  the  poor- 
est, as  it  was  the  earliest,  so  it  shall  be  the  latest  of  all 
the  public  concerns  in  which  I  shall  permit  myself  to 


316      FROM  THE  REFORMATION  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME. 

take  an  interest.  Give  it  to  us,  in  any  shape,  and  re- 
ceive for  the  inestimable  boon  the  thanks  of  the  young, 
and  the  blessings  of  the  old,  who  are  past  all  other  serv- 
ices but  prayers  for  the  prosperity  of  their  country,  and 
blessings  to  those  who  promote  it." 

The  establishment  of  a  national  university,  to  be  lo- 
cated at  the  seat  of  General  Government,  was  earnestly 
advocated  by  "Washington.  He  repeatedly  refers  to  the 
subject,  not  only  in  his  official  communications  to  Con- 
gress, but  also  in  his  private  correspondence  with  Ham- 
ilton, Jefferson,  and  others.  He  conceived  that  such  an 
institution  would  guard  American  youth  from  the  dan- 
gers of  education  abroad,  and  have  a  tendency  to  banish 
local  and  State  prejudices  from  the  national  councils. 
In  his  last  will  he  bequeathed  fifty  shares  in  the  Poto- 
mac Company  "  toward  the  endowment  of  a  university 
to  be  established  within  the  limits  of  the  District  of 
Columbia." 

The  plan  of  granting  a  certain  portion  of  the  public 
lands  for  educational  purposes  had  its  beginning  in  1785. 
In  the  ordinance  for  the  government  of  the  Northwest 
Territory,  the  sixteenth  section  (one  square  mile)  in 
every  township  was  set  apart  for  the  maintenance  of 
public  schools.  The  principle  governing  this  action  was 
stated  as  follows :  "  Religion,  morality,  and  knowledge 
being  necessary  to  good  government  and  the  happiness 
of  mankind,  schools  and  the  means  of  education  shall 
be  forever  encouraged."  Two  years  later  an  additional 
grant  of  two  townships  was  made  to  each  State  for  the 
support  of  a  university.  As  this  action  was  confirmed 
in  1789,  after  the  adoption  of  the  Federal  Constitution, 
every  State  organized  since  that  time  has  received,  in 


EDUCATION  IN  THE  NINETEENTH  CENTURY.        317 

addition  to  the  grant  for  common  schools,  at  least  two 
townships  for  the  promotion  of  higher  education.  In 
1848  the  thirty-sixth  section  of  each  township  was  added 
to  the  sixteenth  for  the  support  of  common  schools. 
Special  grants  have  been  made  at  different  times.  The 
land  granted  by  the  General  Government  for  educational 
purposes  between  1785  and  1862  amounts  to  nearly 
140,000,000  acres. 

In  the  dark  days  of  1862  Congress  was  not  unmind- 
ful of  the  material  progress  of  the  country.  The  need 
of  a  more  practical  education  than  that  furnished  by  the 
ordinary  classical  college  was  felt.  With  the  view  of 
bringing  education  into  closer  relation  with  the  mechanic 
arts  and  the  agricultural  development  of  our  vast  do- 
main, Congress  made  a  grant  of  land-scrip  to  the  amount 
of  30,000  acres  for  each  senator  and  representative  for 
the  establishment  of  what  are  known  as  agricultural 
colleges.  The  leading  object  of  these  colleges,  as  the 
bill  stated,  "should  be,  without  excluding  other  scien- 
tific and  classical  studies,  and  including  military  tactics, 
to  teach  such  branches  of  learning  as  are  related  to  agri- 
culture and  the  mechanic  arts,  in  order  to  promote  the 
liberal  and  practical  education  of  the  industrial  classes 
in  the  several  pursuits  and  professions  of  life."  The 
amount  of  land  thus  donated  to  the  several  States  was 
9,510,000  acres.  All  of  the  States  have  accepted  the 
grant ;  and,  in  accordance  with  the  provisions  of  the 
act,  they  have  either  established  independent  institu- 
tions, or 'have  connected  an  agricultural  department  with 
an  existing  college  or  university.  Supplemented  by 
State  appropriations  and  in  a  few  cases  by  individual 
munificence,  this  donation  by  Congress,  though  failing 


318     FROM  THE  REFORMATION  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME. 

to  reali/e  the  expectations  of  its  friends,  has  led  to  the 
establishment  of  some  excellent  institutions. 

The  Bureau  of  Education  is  an  office  in  the  Depart- 
ment of  the  Interior.  It  had  its  origin  in  the  need  of 
some  central  agency  to  collect,  preserve,  and  distribute 
educational  information.  In  1866  a  memorial  emanat- 
ing from  the  National  Association  of  State  and  City 
School  Superintendents  was  presented  to  the  House  of 
Representatives  ;  and,  substantially  on  the  basis  thus 
recommended,  an  act  was  passed  March  2,  1867,  estab- 
lishing an  agency  "  for  the  purpose  of  collecting  such 
statistics  and  facts  as  shall  show  the  condition  and  prog- 
ress of  education  in  the  several  States  and  Territories, 
and  of  diffusing  such  information  respecting  the  organi- 
zation and  management  of  school  systems  and  methods 
of  teaching  as  shall  aid  the  people  of  the  United 
States  in  the  establishment  and  maintenance  of  effi- 
cient school  systems,  and  otherwise  promote  the  cause 
of  education."  During  its  brief  existence,  the  Bureau 
of  Education  has  collected  a  large  amount  of  valuable 
educational  intelligence,  which  by  means  of  annual 
reports  and  circulars  of  information  it  has  widely  dis- 
seminated. 

By  the  Declaration  of  Independence  the  several  col- 
onies assumed  the  character  of  sovereign  States.  The 
States  of  the  South  continued  to  regard  education,  not 
as  a  public  but  as  a  private  interest,  to  be  left  in  the 
hands  of  parents  or  guardians.  If  here  and  there  popu- 
lar education  found,  as  in  the  case  of  Jefferson,  a  strong 
advocate,  it  did  not  prevail.  Primary  education  was 
supplied  by  means  of  subscription  schools,  which  were 
maintained  during  the  winter  months  in  every  com- 


EDUCATION  IN  THE  NINETEENTH  CENTURY.        319 

munity  of  sufficient  population.  For  those  unable  to 
pay  the  cost  of  tuition,  a  public  fund  was  provided.  In 
the  families  of  the  wealthy,  the  custom  of  employing 
tutors  generally  prevailed.  Private  enterprise  secured 
the  establishment  of  numerous  flourishing  secondary 
schools,  while  denominational  zeal  multiplied  the  num- 
ber of  Christian  colleges. 

By  destroying  the  system  of  slavery,  and  leading,  in 
some  measure,  to  a  reorganization  of  society,  the  civil 
war  has  brought  the  Southern  States  into  harmonious 
relations  with  the  rest  of  the  country.     The  South  has 
broken  away  from  hurtful  traditions ;  it  is  rapidly  de- 
veloping its  material  resources ;  it  is  looking  to  the  fu- 
ture with  a  confident  hopefulness  that  gives  vigor  and 
courage  to  every  effort.    In  no  particular  has  the  change 
been  more  remarkable  and  significant  than  in  education. 
Since  the  war  every  Southern  State  has  adopted  a  sys- 
tem of  free  public  instruction  which,  in  spite  of  poverty, 
prejudice,  and  the  scattered  condition  of  the  population, 
has  made  surprising  progress.     Opposition  has  been 
hushed  or  overcome ;  interest  in  popular  education  is 
profound  and  general ;  political  parties  vie  with  one 
another  in  befriending  the  public  schools ;  young  teach- 
ers, filled  with  the  spirit  of  educational  progress,  have 
come  to  the  front.     "The  great  work,"  says  the  Eev. 
A.  D.  Mayo,  "has  begun  in  earnest.     Our  Northern 
folk  have  no  conception  of  the  rapidly  growing  power 
of  the  educational  movement  in  the  South.     It  is  polar- 
izing political  parties,  shaking  up  religious  sects,  exciting 
the  drawing-rooms,  pulverizing  <  bosses,'  civil,  ecclesias- 
tical, and  social." 

The  spirit  of  the  North  and  the  West  found  fitting 


320      FROM  THE  REFORMATION  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME. 

expression  in  the  Constitution  of  Massachusetts,  adopted 
in  1780.  "Wisdom  and  knowledge,"  says  this  docu- 
ment, "  as  well  as  virtue,  diffused  generally  among  the 
body  of  the  people,  being  necessary  for  the  preservation 
of  their  rights  and  liberties;  and  as  these  depend  on 
spreading  the  opportunities  and  advantages  of  education 
in  the  various  parts  of  the  country,  and  among  the  dif- 
ferent orders  of  the  people,  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  legis- 
lators and  magistrates,  in  all  future  periods  of  this  Com- 
monwealth, to  cherish  the  interests  of  literature  and  the 
sciences,  and  all  seminaries  of  them ;  especially  the 
University  of  Cambridge,  public  schools,  and  grammar- 
schools  in  the  towns ;  to  encourage  private  societies  and 
public  institutions,  rewards  and  immunities,  for  the  pro- 
motion of  agriculture,  arts,  sciences,  commerce,  trades, 
manufactures,  and  a  natural  history  of  the  country ;  to 
countenance  and  inculcate  the  principles  of  humanity 
and  general  benevolence,  public  and  private  charity,  in- 
dustry and  frugality,  honesty  and  punctuality  in  their 
dealings ;  sincerity,  good-humor,  and  all  social  affections 
and  generous  sentiments  among  the  people." 

Though  differing  in  details,  the  system  of  popular 
instruction  now  adopted  throughout  the  United  States 
is  everywhere  substantially  the  same.  It  comprehends 
three  grades  of  schools — the  primary  schools,  in  which 
reading,  writing,  arithmetic,  geography,  and  English 
grammar  are  the  principal  subjects  taught ;  the  second- 
ary schools,  known  as  high -schools,  graded  schools, 
grammar-schools,  and  academies,  in  which  the  higher 
mathematics,  foreign  languages,  history,  and  natural  sci- 
ence are  introduced ;  and  the  colleges  and  universities, 
in  which  the  curricula  embrace  the  studies  necessary  to 


EDUCATION  IN  THE  NINETEENTH  CENTURY.        321 

a  liberal  education  and  professional  life.  To  these  should 
be  added  the  normal  schools,  which  are  designed  to  give 
teachers  a  scientific  training  for  their  vocation. 

The  primary  schools  and,  for  the  most  part,  the  sec- 
ondary schools,  are  supported  by  a  tax  levied  on  all  as- 
sessed property,  together  with  the  income  derived  from 
any  permanent  fund  created  by  special  State  appropri- 
ation or  grant  by  the  national  Government.  Though 
many  States  have  one  or  more  institutions  for  superior 
instruction  maintained  by  annual  appropriations  from 
the  public  treasury,  the  majority  of  our  colleges  and 
universities  are  the  fruit  of  denominational  zeal  and 
individual  munificence.  The  State,  usually  through  a 
Board  of  Education  or  Superintendent  of  Public  In- 
struction, exercises  a  general  supervision  over  the  public 
schools,  while  the  details  of  management  are  committed 
to  local  officers,  consisting  of  county  superintendents 
and  district  committees. 

A  strong  interest  in  education  exists  in  every  section 
of  our  country ;  and,  under  the  impulsion  of  this  feel- 
ing, every  effort  is  made  to  advance  the  public  schools. 
Neat  and  well-furnished  school-houses  are  rapidly  sup- 
planting the  log-huts  and  temporary  make-shifts  of  the 
past;  a  better  qualified  class  of  teachers  is  being  de- 
manded by  public  sentiment ;  the  various  school  officers 
are  held  more  firmly  to  a  faithful  discharge  of  their  du- 
ties ;  the  school  term  is  being  lengthened ;  better  courses 
of  study  and  improved  methods  of  teaching  are  being 
everywhere  introduced.  The  French  Commission  to 
the  Exposition  of  1876  was  correct  in  reporting  that 
"  the  great  zeal  for  the  education  of  the  young  which 
grows  as  the  population  increases,  penetrates  into  the 


322     FKOM  THE  REFORMATION  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME. 

public  mind  more  and  more,  and  manifests  itself  in 
more  and  more  decided  ways.  "What  may  have  seemed 
at  first  a  transient  glow  of  enthusiasm,  a  generous  im- 
pulse, has  in  time  assumed  all  the  force  of  a  logical  con- 
viction, or  rather  of  a  positive  certainty.  It  is  no  longer 
a  movement  of  a  few  philanthropists  or  of  a  few  re- 
ligious societies,  but  it  is  an  essential  part  of  the  public 
administration  for  which  the  States,  the  cities,  and  town- 
ships appropriate  every  year  more  money  than  any  other 
country  in  the  world  has  hitherto  devoted  to  the  educa- 
tion of  the  people.  Far  from  limiting  this  generosity  as 
much  as  possible  to  primary  instruction,  it  goes  so  far 
as  to  declare  free  for  all  not  only  primary  but  even  sec- 
ondary schools." 

The  subject  of  compulsory  education  has  naturally 
elicited  considerable  attention,  and  at  present  educators 
are  divided  in  their  opinions.  The  opponents  of  the 
system  say  that  it  is  essentially  un-American ;  that  it  in- 
terferes with  the  rights  of  parents ;  that  the  difficulties 
of  carrying  it  out  are  insuperable ;  and  that  its  absence 
involves  no  danger  to  our  institutions.  The  advocates 
of  the  system  reply  that  ignorance  is  an  evil  which  the 
State  should  remove ;  that  the  parent  has  no  right  to 
bring  up  his  children  in  ignorance ;  that  the  State  has  a 
natural  right  to  enact  any  kws  that  may  be  necessary 
for  self -protection  ;  and  that  the  compulsory  system, 
both  in  this  country  and  in  Europe,  has  produced  bene- 
ficial results.  The  sentiment  in  favor  of  compulsory 
education  seems  to  be  growing.  Connecticut,  Massa- 
chusetts, Maine,  Michigan,  Texas,  California,  and  New 
Jersey  have  adopted  it,  and  in  other  States  the  subject 
is  more  or  less  discussed. 


EDUCATION  IN  THE  NINETEENTH  CENTURY.        323 

Another  prominent  educational  question  is  the  co- 
education of  the  sexes  in  our  colleges  and  universities. 
In  the  primary  schools  and  even  in  the  secondary 
schools  of  this  country,  the  young  'of  both  sexes  have 
generally  been  educated  together.  Begun  from  consid- 
erations of  economy  and  convenience,  co-education  is 
now  continued  in  these  schools  from  a  strong  conviction 
of  its  excellence.  But  that  the  same  system  should  ap- 
ply to  superior  education  is  stoutly  denied.  It  is  said 
that  co-education  in  our  higher  institutions  of  learning 
endangers  the  health  of  young  women ;  that  it  does  not 
give  them  a  training  suited  to  their  destiny  in  life ;  that 
it  develops  a  strong-minded  type  of  womanhood ;  that 
it  lowers  the  grade  of  scholarship ;  that  it  leads  to  per- 
sonal attachments  and  matrimonial  engagements;  and, 
lastly,  that  it  gives  rise  to  scandals.  These  arguments 
are  chiefly  theoretical,  and  hence  it  happens  that  they 
are  met  by  a  series  of  counter-statements.  The  advo- 
cates of  co-education  in  our  colleges,  after  a  more  or  less 
extended  observation  of  its  workings,  affirm  that  the 
system  has  not  proved  injurious  to  health ;  that  it  aims 
at  individual  development,  which  is  the  true  end  of 
education ;  that  it  makes  young  women  more  womanly, 
and  young  men  more  manly ;  that  it  raises  the  standard 
of  scholarship,  since  female  students  usually  maintain  a 
better  average  than  their  male  competitors;  that  if  it 
sometimes  leads  to  matrimonial  engagements,  these  are 
formed  under  the  most  favorable  circumstances ;  that  it 
does  not  give  rise  to  more  scandals  than  otherwise  occur ; 
that  it  elevates  the  moral  tone  of  a  college,  and  renders 
discipline  less  difficult ;  and  that,  by  bringing  about  a 
communion  of  sympathy  and  taste  between  man  and 


324     FROM  THE  REFORMATION  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME. 

woman,  it  lays  the  foundation  for  greater  domestic  hap- 
piness. "Whatever  may  be  thought  of  the  arguments  on 
either  side,  it  is  certain  that  co-education  is  growing  in 
popular  favor.  It  is  but  a  few  years  since  the  experi- 
ment was  first  tried,  yet  at  present  the  system  is  adopted 
in  nearly  one  third  of  our  colleges  and  universities. 
Where  it  has  been  tried  under  favorable  conditions,  it 
has  rarely  failed,  by  its  good  results,  to  overcome  preju- 
dice and  win  popular  favor. 

Our  college  curricula  are  undergoing  important  modi- 
fications. The  old  course  of  study,  consisting  almost 
exclusively  of  Latin,  Greek,  and  mathematics,  has  ap- 
peared to  many  not  to  be  duly  adjusted  to  the  conditions 
of  the  present  age.  The  growth  of  knowledge  during 
the  past  two  or  three  centuries  has  been  very  great.  A 
large  number  of  sciences,  particularly  those  relating  to 
Nature,  have  been  added  to  the  domain  of  learning. 
Modern  nations  have  come  into  prominence,  and  pro- 
duced literatures  of  incomparable  worth.  These  facts 
have  necessitated  an  enlargement  of  the  college  course. 
As  President  Eliot,  of  Harvard,  has  well  said:  "The 
general  growth  of  knowledge,  and  the  rise  of  new  liter- 
atures, arts,  and  sciences  during  the  past  two  hundred 
and  fifty  years,  have  made  it  necessary  to  define  anew 
liberal  education,  and  hence  enlarge  the  signification  of 
the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Arts,  which  is  the  customary 
evidence  of  a  liberal  education."  The  leading  subjects 
that  have  thus  acquired  prominence  are  English,  the 
natural  sciences,  and  the  modern  languages ;  and,  in 
order  to  make  room  for  them,  nearly  all  of  our  colleges 
have  adopted  parallel  courses  and  the  elective  system. 
The  process  of  adjustment  which  is  now  going  on  will, 


EDUCATION   IN  THE   NINETEENTH   CENTURY.        325 

no  doubt,  issue  in  courses  of  study  well  suited  to  the 
needs  of  our  country. 

(H.)  CONCLUSION. 

There  can  be  little  doubt  that  the  educational  world 
is  in  a  period  of  rapid  transition.  Correct  views  of  the 
nature  and  end  of  education  are  becoming  prevalent ; 
and,  in  order  that  educational  methods  may  have  a  sci- 
entific basis,  the  physical  and  mental  constitution  of 
man  is  being  subjected  anew  to  careful  investigation. 
The  laws  governing  human  development  have  been 
largely  ascertained,  and  now  give  direction  to  our  best 
teaching.  The  work  of  education  is  no  longer  left  to 
novices  destitute  of  any  training  except  an  acquaintance 
with  the  defective  methods  by  which  they  were  them- 
selves instructed.  Teaching  is  being  elevated  into  a 
profession,  for  which  intelligence  and  training  are  recog- 
nized as  necessary.  There  is  a  breaking  away  from  tra- 
ditional views  and  customs.  Human  reason,  unfettered 
by  tradition  or  the  dicta  of  authority,  is  everywhere 
proving  all  things,  and  holding  fast  only  that  which  is 
good.  The  present  is  an  age  of  experiment  and  inves- 
tigation. Able  minds  in  all  Christian  lands  are  engaged 
upon  educational  problems.  While  all  this  leaves  the 
educational  world  in  an  unsettled  condition,  it  promises 
well  for  the  future.  Within  the  past  few  decades  truth 
has  made  large  conquests  in  the  domain  of  education. 
And,  as  we  may  well  judge,  both  from  the  lessons  of 
the  past  and  the  tendencies  of  the  present,  there  will 
come  forth  from  this  struggle  an  education  firmly  estab- 
lished on  a  scientific  basis,  and  better  adjusted  to  the 
conditions  of  modern  life. 


INDEX. 


Abstract  human  education,  tenden- 
cies and  results,  247-249. 

Academies  and  high-schools  in  the 
United  States,  320,  321. 

Adams,  John,  President  of  the  Unit- 
ed States,  on  popular  education, 
315. 

Agricola,  father  of  German  human- 
ism, 125  ;  studies  and  labors  of, 
125-127 ;  views  of,  on  study  and 
schools,  126-128. 

Agricultural  colleges  in  the  United 
States,  317. 

Albrecht  of  Saxony,  on  excesses  of 
students  in  the  University  of  Jena 
(1624),  165,  166. 

Alexandria  in  Egypt,  36 ;  catecheti- 
cal schools  in,  91-93. 

Antwerp,  Agricola's  school  in,  126. 

Aristotle,  pupil  of  Plato's,  62 ;  great 
intellect,  62,  63;  Lyceum  of,  in 
Athens,  mode  of  teaching,  63 ; 
views  and  principles,  64,  65; 
writings  of,  studied  in  monastic 
schools,  100. 

Aryan  or  Indo-European  family  of 
nations,  15 ;  Greeks  a  branch  of, 
89 ;  Teutonic  tribes  also,  87. 

Asceticism  in  the  early  Church,  93, 
94. 

Athens,  in  Attica,  position  and  peo- 
ple of,  49 ;  Attic  idea  of  educa- 
tion, 49 ;  laws  of  Solon,  50 ;  only 
freemen  educated,  time  occupied 
In  studies,  etc.,  61-55;  love  of 
the  beautiful,  49,  65  ;  defects  of, 
and  results,  54-56 ;  Socrates,  Pla- 


to, Aristotle,  influence    of,  66- 
65. 

Augustine,  Saint,  on  Christian  edu- 
cation, 98. 

Bacon,  Francis,  early  life  and  train- 
ing, 179 ;  studies  law,  enters  Par- 
liament, etc.,  180;  political  ad- 
vancement of,  180;  stains  on 
character,  180,  181 ;  views  of,  on 
education,  182,  183 ;  true  value 
of  learning,  183 ;  on  graces  of 
style,  183,  184;  Novum  Orga- 
num  of,  184,  185 ;  characteristic 
features  of  philosophy  of,  185 ; 
extract  from  the  Novum  Orga- 
num,  186  ;  value  of  works  of,  to 
education,  186,  187;  prediction 
of,  as  to  the  future,  188. 

Barnard,  Jlenry,  on  history  of  edu- 
cation, 7. 

Basedow,  founder  of  Philanthropin- 
ists,  256,  267  ;  views  of,  quoted, 
257, 258;  performances  in  schools 
of,  258-260 ;  failure  of,  260. 

Basil,  Saint,  on  Christian  education, 
99. 

Bell,  Andrew,  educational  work  of, 
304. 

Benedictines,  99. 

Berkeley,  Sir  William,  on  free 
schools,  etc.,  in  Virginia,  308. 

Bible,  poetry  of  the,  31 ;  rule  of 
faith  among  Protestants,  138  ;  to 
be  studied  in  schools,  139,  140. 

Blair,  Rev.  James,  founds  William 
and  Mary  College,  Virginia,  309. 


328 


INDEX. 


Breal,     Michel,     French    scholar, 

quoted,  139,  140. 

Brahmans  and  Brahmanism,  16-20. 
Brethren    of    the    Common    Life, 

schools  of,  112,  113. 
Bureau  of  Education  in  the  United 

States,  318. 
Burgher  schools,  character  of,  110, 

111. 

Calvin,  John,  interest  in  education, 
153. 

Carlyle,  Thomas,  on  Martin  Luther, 
140. 

Catechetical  schools  in  the  primi- 
tive Church,  91-93. 

Cathedral  and  parochial  schools, 
102. 

Cato  the  Elder,  course  of,  as  to  edu- 
cation, 70,  71. 

Charlemagne,  views  and  efforts  hi 
behalf  of  education,  104-106. 

China,  genius  and  character  of  the 
people,  9,  10;  at  a  stand-still, 
10;  aim  of  education  in,  10,  11 ; 
schools  and  teaching,  12 ;  work- 
ing of  system,  13 ;  general  result, 
14,  15. 

Christ  Jesus,  early  life  and  train- 
ing, 82,  83 ;  mode  of  teaching, 
84 ;  the  teacher  and  educator  of 
mankind,  85 ;  Rousseau's  tribute 
to,  255. 

Christianity,  relation  of,  to  educa- 
tion, 80 ;  wide-reaching  influence 
of,  81,  82;  life  and  teaching  of 
the  Founder  of,  82-85. 

Chrysoloras,  Manuel,  in  Florence, 
121. 

Chrysostom,  Saint,  on  Christian  ed- 
ucation, 96,  97. 

Church,  early,  education  in,  88-90 ; 
pitiable  condition  of  the  Roman 
Catholic,  at  time  of  the  Reforma- 
tion, 135-138. 

Cicero,  quoted,  67;  education  and 
character  of,  71,  72;  views  and 
services  as  to  education,  72,  73 ; 
writings  of,  used  in  the  monastic 
schools,  100. 


Classical  nations,  ancient,  position 
of,  in  history  of  education,  37-39. 

Co-education  of  sexes  in  the  United 
States,  323,  324. 

Coleman,  on  education  among  the 
early  Christians,  89,  90. 

Comenius,  maxim  of,  1 ;  born  in 
Moravia,  200;  early  years  and 
training,  200,  201 ;  losses  and 
trials,  201,  202 ;  prepares  an  ed- 
ucational work,  202;  publishes 
"  The  Gate  of  Tongues,"  merits 
of,  203,  204 ;  great  "  pansophic  " 
scheme  of  education,  204 ;  goes 
to  Sweden,  204,  205  ;  conference 
with  Oxenstiern,  205 ;  publishes 
"Latest  Method  with  Languages," 
205,  206 ;  opens  school  in  Patak, 
206 ;  prepares  "  The  World  Illus- 
trated," 206  ;  work  very  popular, 
207 ;  finds'  an  asylum  in  Amster- 
dam in  old  age,  207  ;  services  to 
education,  208,  209 ;  principles, 
etc.,  of,  209-211;  school  system 
and  pious  sentiments,  211,  212. 

Confucius,  and  Chinese  classics,  13 ; 
system  of  teaching,  13,  14. 

Constantinople,  conquest  of,  by  the 
Turks,  and  results,  119-121. 

Crusades,  in  the  Holy  Land,  effects 
of  the,  107. 

Cusanus,  Nicholas,  one  of  the  Breth- 
ren of  the  Common  Life,  113. 

Cyrus  the  Great,  incident  in  early 
life  of,  24,  25. 

D'Aubigne1,  on  Reuchlin,  130;  on 
Luther  and  Melanchthon,  149. 

David,  King,  Psalms  of,  31. 

Deism  in  England  and  elsewhere, 
248. 

Education,  necessity  of,  2 ;  elements 
entering  into,  4 ;  progress  in,  6  ; 
nature  and  value  of  history  of,  6, 
7 ;  history  of,  treated  under  three 
heads,  8 ;  ancestral,  among  the 
Chinese,  15;  caste  system  in  In- 
dia, 21 ;  state  education  in  Per- 
sia, 25,  26 ;  theocratic  among  the 


INDEX. 


329 


Jews,  32;  under  the  priests  in 
Egypt,  34 ;  priestly  education  in 
Egypt,  35 ;  patriarchal  in  heroic 
age,  39  ;  aesthetic  in  Athens,  56  ; 
practical  in  Rome,  71 ;  Christian 
education  before  the  Reforma- 
tion, 86,  87,  117,  118;  primarily 
religious  in  the  early  Church, 
88-91;  catechetical  schools,  91, 
92 ;  during  the  middle  ages,  93, 
94 ;  asceticism  dominant,  94-98  ; 
views  of  the  fathers,  Chrysos- 
tom,  Jerome,  Augustine,  etc.,  96- 
99 ;  course  in  monastic  schools, 
100 ;  in  cathedral  and  parochial 
schools,  102,  103;  Neander's 
statements,  103,  104;  Charle- 
magne's view  and  efforts,  104- 
106 ;  secular  against  ecclesiasti- 
cal, 106,  107;  knightly,  107- 
110;  female  education  neglected, 
111,  112;  growth  of  scientific 
spirit,  113,  114;  founding  of 
universities,  115-117;  education 
from  the  Reformation  to  present 
time,  119,  120;  revival  of  learn- 
ing, 120;  labors  of  Agricola, 
Reuchlin,  Erasmus,  125,  128, 
131 ;  relation  of  Reformation  to, 
135-138 ;  services  of  Protestant- 
ism to,  139,  140;  services  of 
Martin  Luther  to,  140-147  ;  serv- 
ices of  Mclanchthon  to,  150-1 52  ; 
services  of  Zwingli  and  Calvin 
to,  153,  154;  leading  tendencies, 
154;  abstract  theological  (1550- 
1700),  154  et  seq.;  effect  pro- 
duced, 156-158;  increase  of 
schools,  158,  159;  success  of 
Jesuit  schools,  168,  169;  results 
of  Jesuit  system,  172,  173  ;  re- 
action against  theological  teach- 
ing, 173-175;  liberal,  progres- 
sive spirit  of  seventeenth  cent- 
ury, 173,  174;  progress  in  nat- 
ural science  and  literature,  174  ; 
Montaigne's  views,  176-178  ;  Ba- 
con's views,  182,  183 ;  Milton's 
views  and  scheme  of  studies, 
190  -  194  ;  Ratich's  memorial, 


school,  methods,  etc.,  195-200; 
Comenius's  works  on  education, 
202-204 ;  Locke's  principles  and 
views,  217-222;  further  reac- 
tion based  on  religion,  223,  224 ; 
Port  Royal  school  and  services, 
225-227;  Fenelon  on  "Educa- 
tion of  Girls,"  228,  231 ;  Rollin's 
views  and  principles  as  to  teach- 
ing, etc.,  235-239 ;  abstract  hu- 
man tendencies,  and  results,  247- 
249;  education  in  nineteenth 
century,  266  et  seq.  ;  general  ad- 
vance, 266  ;  Pestalozzi's  services, 
266-278;  Froebel's  work  and 
success,  278-288;  Kindergarten 
method,  283,  284 ;  contemporary 
education,  great  advance  in,  288- 
291;  in  Germany,  291-296;  in 
France,  296-302;  in  England, 
302-306;  in  the  United  States, 
306  et  seq.  ;  national  university 
advocated,  317;  grant  of  public 
lands  for,  316,  317  ;  compulsory, 
322 ;  of  both  sexes  in  colleges, 
323,  324 ;  transitional  period  at 
hand,  325 ;  prospect  in  the  fu- 
ture, 325. 

Egypt,  people  of,  advance  in  civili- 
zation, 32 ;  people,  priests,  etc., 
33,  34 ;  priests  in  charge  of  edu- 
cation, 34,  35  ;  change  of  system 
under  Psammetichus,  35,  36. 

Eliot,  President  of  Harvard  College, 
quoted,  324. 

"  Emile,"  Rousseau's,  teaching  as  to 
nature,  etc.,  250-255. 

England,  progress  in  science  and 
literature  in  seventeenth  century, 
174;  efforts  in  behalf  of  educa- 
tion in  eighteenth  and  nineteenth 
centuries,  802-306. 

Erasmus,  eminent  scholar,  131 ;  ser- 
vices to  the  Reformation,  132; 
edition  of  Greek  Testament,  132, 
133 ;  lack  of  moral  courage,  133 ; 
views  on  education,  133-135. 

Farrar,  Canon,  on  Seneca  the  phi- 
losopher, 74. 


330 


INDEX. 


Female  education.    See  Woman. 
Fenelon,    priest,    author,   teacher, 

227,  228 ;  tutor  of  grandson  of 
Louis  XIV.,  228,  229 ;   mode  of 
teaching,  229,  230;  Telemachus 
of,-  230 ;    on  education  of  girls, 

228,  231,  232 ;  views  as  to  early 
education,  mode  of   instruction, 
etc.,  232-234. 

France,  progress  of,  in  science  and 
literature  in  seventeenth  century, 
174;  popular  education  in,  296, 
297;  Napoleon's  views  on  edu- 
cation, 297 ;  under  the  Restora- 
tion, 297,  298 ;  under  Louis  Phi- 
lippe, 298 ;  Guizot's  sentiments, 
298,  299 ;  under  the  second  re- 
public, 299,  300 ;  present  course 
and  facilities,  300-302. 

Francke,  A.  H.,  theologian  and 
teacher,  240,  241 ;  noble  devo- 
tion to  teaching  the  poor,  241, 
242;  institutions  founded  by, 
242,  243;  views  on  education, 
244,  245 ;  rules  for  teachers,  245 
-247 ;  death  of,  247. 

Freyssinous,  M.  de,  on  education 
in  France,  297,  298. 

Froebel  and  the  Kindergarten,  278- 
288 ;  early  life  of,  278,  279  ;  love 
of  Nature,  279;  education  of, 
280,  281 ;  enters  on  educational 
work,  282,  2S3 ;  establishes  the 
Kindergarten,  283,  284;  princi- 
ples and  practice  of,  284-286 ; 
summary  of  educational  system 
of,  287,  288 ;  death  and  charac- 
ter of,  288. 

"  Gate  of  Tongues,"  by  Comenius, 
203,  204. 

Germany,  effect  of  revival  of  learn- 
ing in,  123-125;  opposition  of 
the  monks  to  education,  123—125 ; 
contemporary  education  in,  291, 
292  ;  government  supervision  of 
education,  292 ;  three  grades  of 
schools,  primary,  gymnasia,  real 
school,  292-295  ;  normal  schools, 
295  ;  universities  of,  296. 


Greece,  ancient,  position,  people, 
etc.,  39 ;  two  chief  cities  of,  in 
history  of  education,  39 ;  study 
of  Greek  language  after  the  fall 
of  Constantinople,  121. 

Greek  and  Latin,  on  the  study  of, 
264,  265. 

Groot,  Gerhard,  founder  of  the 
Brotherhood  of  Common  Life, 
112. 

Grote,  George,  quoted  on  Pythago- 
ras, 46. 

Gymnastic  training  in  Sparta,  41, 
42 ;  in  Athens,  53,  54  ;  Plato's 
views  on,  62  ;  Seneca's  opinion 
of,  76. 

Harvard,  Rev.  John,  and  Harvard 
College,  311. 

"Hazing"  in  German  schools,  166. 

Hindoos,  character  of,  16,  17; 
castes  among,  17 ;  education  of 
children,  and  teachers  of,  18; 
higher  education  among,  19,  20. 

History  of  education.  See  Education. 

Humanists  and  revival  of  learning, 
120 ;  eminent  names  among,  125 ; 
Agricola,  125;  Reuchlin,  128; 
Erasmus,  131 ;  humanism  and 
theology,  159 ;  movement  of,  in 
eighteenth  century,  261 ;  study 
of  classical  antiquity  basis  of  all 
culture,  261,  262;  fundamental 
principles  of,  262,  263;  leading 
representatives,  263, 264 ;  system 
of,  modified,  264,  265. 

Hutten,  Von,  and  "  Letters  of  Ob- 
scure Men,"  124,  125. 

Huxley,  Professor,  on  liberal  edu- 
cation, 3. 

India,  education  in,  15 ;  religion  of, 
16;  people,  castes,  and  caste  sys- 
tem, 16, 17;  higher  education  in, 
19,  20. 

Israel,  people  of,  26-32 ;  mission 
of,  in  the  world's  history,  27; 
education  among,  27,  28 ;  system 
of  teaching,  28,  29 ;  higher  edu- 
cation of,  30;  schools  of  the 


INDEX. 


331 


prophets,  30,  31 ;   religious  po- 
etry of,  31. 

Italy,  effect  of  revival  of  learning 
in,  121-123. 

Jahn,  Hebrew  Commonwealth  of, 
quoted,  30,  33,  34. 

Jansenism,  in  Roman  Catholic 
Church,  224,  225;  Port  Royal 
schools,  225,  226;  opposed  to 
the  Jesuit  system,  226  ;  services 
of  school  of,  to  education,  226, 
227. 

Janssen,  J.,  on  the  schools  of  the 
Brethren  of  the  Common  Life. 
113. 

Jefferson,  Thomas,  on  popular  edu- 
cation, 315. 

Jerome,  Saint,  on  Christian  educa- 
tion, 97,  98. 

Jesuits,  founded  by  Ignatius  Loyo- 
la, 166;  opponents  of  the  Ref- 
ormation, 167 ;  principles  and 
methods,  167,  168;  schools  of, 
very  successful,  168;  the  order 
abolished,  then  re  -  established, 
168;  Loyola's  plan  of  studies, 
169 ;  the  religious  element  very 
strong  in,  1 70 ;  skill  of,  in  teach- 
ing, 171,  172;  emulation,  length 
of  course,  and  results,  171-173. 

Jews.     See  Israel. 

Justin  Martyr,  quoted,  88.' 

Kahnis,  on  the  tenets  of  deism, 
248. 

Kant,  on  the  Philanthropin  educa- 
tional scheme,  260,  261. 

Kindergarten,  established  by  Froe- 
bel,  283,  284 ;  mode  of  teaching 
in,  284. 

Knightly  education,  aim  of,  and 
course  of  study,  107-110. 

Kothen,  Ratich's  school  at,  196-200. 

Kurtz,  on  theology  in  the  seven- 
teenth century,  155,  156;  on  the 
pietistic  movement,  240. 

Lancaster,  Joseph,  labors  of,  for 
education,  305. 


Languages,  value  of  study  of  an- 
cient, 264 ;  of  modern,  264,  265. 

Latin  and  Greek,  on  study  of,  264, 
265. 

"  Letters  of  Obscure  Men,"  124, 125. 

Lewes,  G.  H.,  on  Plato,  60. 

Locke,  John,  early  years  and  educa- 
tion, 213,  214;  public  life  and 
experience,  214,  215  ;  "  Thoughts 
concerning  Education,"  216,  217  ; 
principles  set  forth  in  the  work, 
217-219 ;  views  as  to  physical 
education,  capacity  of  pupils,  ex- 
ercises, study  of  languages,  219- 
222. 

Luther,  Martin,  on  Reuchlin,  131 ; 
on  the  low  state  of  education  in 
Saxony,  etc.,  137,  138  ;  early  life 
and  struggles,  140,  141 ;  interest 
in  education,  142-144 ;  on  family 
discipline,  144  ;  on  teaching,  145 ; 
efforts  in  behalf  of  education. 
146,  147. 
Lyceums  and  communal  colleges  in 

France,  300,  301. 

Lycurgus,  system  of  laws  and  edu- 
cation, 40,  41 ;  details  of  system 
of,  41,  45  ;  results  in  Sparta,  44, 
45. 

Macaulay,  Lord,  quoted,  174. 

Magi,  the,  in  Persia,  25. 

Massachusetts,  early  attention  in,  to 
education,  811  ;  Harvard  College 
founded  in,  811,  812  ;  action  as 
to  common  schools,  312,  313. 

Maurus,  Rabanus,  on  studies  in  the 
monastic  schools,  101,  102. 

Melanchthon,  pupil  of  Reuchlin,  1 30; 
on  churches  and  schools  of  Thu- 
ringia,  136,  137;  early  life  and 
training,  148,  149  ;  love  of  learn- 
ing, 150;  great  influence  on 
education,  151;  "  Saxony  School 
Plan,"  of,  152. 

Milton,  John,  on  education,  3 ;  early 
life  and  training,  188,  189 ;  sad 
period  of  life,  189,  190 ;  educa- 
tional reformer,  1 90 ;  views  on 
education,  190-192;  on  mcth- 


INDEX. 


ods  and  studies,  192,  193;  vast 
scheme  of  studies,  194. 

Minne-songs,  what  they  were,  109. 

Mohammedan  learning,  seats  of, 
success,  etc.,  114. 

Monastic  schools,  99,  100 ;  course 
of  study  in,  100,  101. 

Monitorial  system  of  teaching,  304. 

Monks,  opposed  revival  of  learning, 
123-125 ;  schools  of,  course  of 
study,  etc.,  99-101. 

Montaigne,  eminent  French  writer, 
175 ;  early  years  and  training, 
175,  176;  "Essays"  of,  176; 
views  of,  on  education,  study  of 
languages,  etc.,  176,  177;  cen- 
sures mechanical  methods  and 
cramming,  177 ;  on  school  disci- 
pline, 177,  178 ;  chief  subject  of 
study,  178. 

Mosheim,  the  historian,  on  the  views 
of  the  Jansenists,  224. 

Music,  in  Greek  education,  54. 

Nature,  study  of,  247 ;  as  urged  by 

Rousseau  in  "Emile,"  250-256. 
Neander,  the  historian,  quoted,  93  ; 

on  education  in  Church  schools, 

103,  104. 
Niethammer,  on  contrast   between 

humanism  and  philanthropinism, 

263. 
Normal  schools  in  Germany,  295. 

Oriental  nations,  aim  of  education 
in,  9.  See  China,  India,  Persia, 
Israel,  Egypt. 

"  Pansophic  "  scheme  of  education, 
204. 

Parochial  schools,  102,  103. 

Paroz,  on  Sturm's  system  of  educa- 
tion, 162,  163 ;  on  merits  of  Ra- 
tich,  199,  200;  on  services  of  Port 
Royal  to  education,  226,  227  ;  on 
Fenelon  as  a  teacher,  224 ;  on 
Rousseau's  views,  252. 

Peasantry,  education  of,  neglected 
in  the  middle  ages,  111,  112. 

Pedagogue,  Athenian,  52. 


Persia,  religion  of,  21,  22 ;  educa- 
tion in,  22,  23  ;  importance  of  the 
Magi  in,  25. 

Pestalozzi,  on  sound  education,  1 ; 
high  character  of,  266,  267 ;  per- 
sonal  qualities  and  studies,  268- 

270  ;  devotion  of,  to  teaching,  270, 

271  ;  school  of,  at  Burgdorf,  271 ; 
at  Yverdun,  272,  273  ;  loses  his 
wife,  274;  death  and  character 
of,  274,  275 ;  educational  princi- 
ples, 276,  277 ;  these  summarized 
by  Payne,  277,  278. 

Pfefferkorn,  John,  sought  to  have 
all  Jewish  books,  except  the  Bi- 
ble, destroyed,  130. 

Philanthropin,  and  Philanthropin- 
ists,  views  and  theories  of,  on  edu- 
cation, 256-261 ;  chief  advocates 
of  the  system,  256,  257 ;  Kant's 
opinion  of,  260,  261. 

Phoenicians,  in  antiquity,  26. 

Pietism,  name  given  to  Spener's 
labors  in  Frankfort,  239,  240. 

Plato,  pupil  of  Socrates,  60 ;  views 
on  education  in  the  "  Republic," 
61,  62  ;  made  education  the  busi- 
ness of  the  state,  course  of  study, 
etc.,  61,  62. 

Plutarch,  quoted,  on  education  in 
Sparta,  41, 44 ;  on  Cato  the  Elder, 
70,  71. 

Popular  education  in  England,  302, 
304-306 ;  preparatory  schools, 
302,  303 ;  in  American  colonies, 
307,  308;  in  New  England,  312; 
in  Massachusetts,  312,  313;,  in 
Connecticut,  313;  in  Rhode  Isl- 
and, 313  ;  in  New  Jersey,  313  ;  in 
Pennsylvania,  313 ;  in  Maryland, 
314. 

Port  Royal  schools.  See  Jansenism. 

Primary  schools,  in  Germany,  292 ; 
in  France,  300;  in  the  United 
States,  320,  321. 

Protestantism,  principles  of,  138- 
140;  services  of,  to  education,  139, 
140. 

Public  schools  in  New  England 
States,  312-314. 


INDEX. 


333 


Puritans,  in  New  England,  educa- 
tional views  of,  310. 

Pygmalion,  story  of,  184. 

Pyramids,  in  Egypt,  32. 

Pythagoras,  25  ;  native  of  Samos, 
45 ;  studies  in  Egypt,  45,  46 ; 
school  of,  in  Italy,  46 ;  views  of, 
and  course  of  study,  46,  47 ;  re- 
ligious views  of,  47,  48 ;  dog- 
matic tone  of,  48  ;  end  of  career, 
49. 

Quick,  on  the  Jesuit  system  of  teach- 
ing, 172,  173  ;  on  teaching  Latin 
at  Kothen,  197,  198;  on  John 
Locke's  views,  223. 

Quintilian,  born  in  Spain,  educated 
in  Rome,  76,  77 ;  taught  twenty 
years  in  Rome,  77 ;  system  of 
education,  77-79 ;  writings  of, 
used  in  the  monastic  schools, 
100. 

Raikes,  Robert,  founder  of  Sunday- 
schools,  304. 

Ratich,  critic  and  educator  (six- 
teenth and  seventeenth  centu- 
ries), Holstein,  194,  195  ;  memo- 
rial on  education,  195;  model 
school  of,  in  Anhalt-Kothen,  196 ; 
mode  of  teaching,  196-198;  fail- 
ure of  school,  198;  educational 
maxims,  199;  value  of  educational 
maxims,  198 ;  services  of,  to  edu- 
cation, 199,  200. 

Raumer,  quoted,  123, 125  ;  on  John 
Sturm,  159,  160;  on  university 
schools,  165;  on  Francis  Bacon, 
181 ;  on  Comenius,  208  ;  on  John 
Locke,  216 ;  on  current  training 
of  children  in  eighteenth  century, 
256. 

Reformation,  the,  in  the  sixteenth 
century,  important  results  of,  119, 
1 20 ;  relation  of,  to  education,  135, 
136. 

Reformers,  the  Continental:  Luther, 
140 ;  Melanchthon,  148 ;  Zwingli 
and  Calvin,  153. 

Reuchlin,   one  of    the  humanists, 


128 ;  services  of,  to  Hebrew  learn- 
ing, 128-130. 

Revival  of  learning,  120 ;  effect 
produced  in  Italy,  121-123. 

Richter,  on  Rousseau's  views  of 
education,  250,  251. 

Ritter,  on  Aristotle,  63  ;  on  Cicero, 
72. 

Rollin,  early  life  and  education,  234 ; 
"  Treatise  on  Studies,"  285,  236 ; 
views  of,  as  to  sound  education, 
236 ;  on  qualifications  of  teachers, 
237,  238  ;  rules  and  principles  of, 
in  teaching  children,  238,  239. 

Roman  Catholic  Church.  See  Church. 

Rome,  age  of  Augustus  in,  65,  66 ; 
Roman  character  in  contrast  with 
Grecian,  66 ;  love  of  utility,  67  ; 
family  life  in,  67 ;  school  train- 
ing, 68,  69  ;  higher  education  in, 
68-70 ;  general  result,  70. 

Rousseau,  J.  J.,  early  years,  249 ; 
strange  contradictions  in  life  of, 
250  ;  "  l^mile,  or  concerning  Ed- 
ucation," estimate  of,  250,  251 ; 
views  of,  as  to  getting  rid  of  evil 
by  returning  to  Nature,  252 ;  five 
periods  of  human  development, 
252,  253 ;  on  female  education, 
254,  255  ;  tribute  to  Christ  Jesus 
and  the  Gospel,  256. 

Rowe,  Rev.  A.  D.,  quoted,  on  native 
schools  in  India,  18,  19. 

"  Saxony  School  Plan,"  by  Melanch- 
thon, 152. 

Schmidt,  Karl,  on  Pythagoras,  47  ; 
on  the  teachings  of  Jesus -Christ, 
86 ;  on  education  in  the  middle 
ages,  94 ;  on  progress  in  the  sev- 
enteenth century,  175  ;  on  John 
Locke,  216  ;  on  the  principles  of 
the  humanists,  262,  263. 

Schools,  catechetical,  91 ;  monastic, 
99 ;  cathedral  and  parochial,  102 ; 
Neander  on  church  schools,  103, 
104;  Jesuit,  167, 168;  Port  Roy- 
al, 225,  226  ;  Kindergarten,  283, 
284  ;  primary  in  Germany,  292 ; 
normal  in  Germany,  295  ;  prima- 


334 


INDEX. 


ry  in  France,  300 ;  common  in 
Massachusetts,  312,  313  ;  prima- 
ry in  United  States,  320,  321. 

Science  and  scientific  spirit,  growth 
of,  in  the  middle  ages,  113,  114 ; 
led  to  the  founding  of  universi- 
ties, 115. 

Semitic  race,  works  of,  26. 

Seneca,  the  philosopher,  born  in 
Spain,  early  education  in  Rome, 
74;  banished,  75;  tutor  of  Nero, 
75 ;  sentiments  and  principles  of, 
75,  76. 

Socrates,  born  in  Athens,  personal 
appearance  of,  56 ;  sentiments 
and  style  of  teaching,  57,  58 ; 
trial  and  death  of,  58-60. 

Solon,  the  Athenian  lawgiver,  50 ; 
system  and  aim  of  education,  50- 
55. 

Southern  colonies  of  America  neg- 
lected public  education,  307 ; 
improvement  in  the  Southern 
States  since  the  war  of  secession, 
319. 

Sparta,  under  laws  of  Lyeurgus,  40- 
42 ;  education  in,  chiefly  physical, 
41 ;  how  carried  out,  42  ;  literary 
and  moral  training,  42,  43  ;  sys- 
tem of  education  is  martial,  45 ; 
Thirlwall's  views  quoted,  45. 

Spencer,  Herbert,  on  education,  4. 

Spener,  Jacob.    See  Pietism. 

Stanz,  on  Lake  Lucerne,  Pestaloz- 
zi's  school  in,  270. 

Staunton,  Howard,  on  English 
schools,  303. 

Sturm,  John,  born  in  Prussia,  a 
noted  humanist,  159 ;  taught  in 
Strasburg  forty  years,  159;  course 
of  study  at  gymnasium  of,  160- 
162 ;  influence  of,  in  England  and 
America,  163,  164. 

Sunday  -  schools,  established  by 
Raikes,  304. 

Tertullian,  the  Latin  father,  quoted, 
89,  95,  96. 

Teutonic  nations,  leaders  in  educa- 
tion, 87. 


Theology  a  science  (seventeenth 
century),  155  ;  effect  of,  on  the 
universities,  164,  165. 

Thirlwall,  the  historian,  quoted  on 
education  in  Sparta,  45. 

Thomas  a  Kempis,  one  of  the  Breth- 
ren of  the  Common  Life,  113. 

United  States,  educational  needs  of, 
806,  307 ;  two  periods,  colonial 
and  national,  307,  308  ;  educa- 
tional work  during  colonial  peri- 
od, in  Virginia,  Massachusetts, 
etc.,  308-314 ;  principles  and 
spirit  during  national  period,  314 
et  seq. ;  national  university  advo- 
cated, 316;  public  lands  granted 
for  education,  316,  317 ;  popular 
education  throughout  the  country 
much  the  same,  320. 

Universities,  rise  and  progress  of, 
115,  116;  influence  and  power 
of,  116,  117  ;  low  moral  state  of, 
in  the  middle  ages,  115,  116; 
how  affected  by  theological  tend- 
encies, 164 ;  disgraceful  ex- 
cesses of  students  in,  165,  166 ; 
excellence  of  German,  296 ;  in- 
struction in  the  French,  301,  302 ; 
in  England,  303,  304;  in  the 
United  States,  320,  321. 

"  Veda,"  the,  what  it  is,  16. 

Virginia,  education  in  the  colonial 
period,  308,  309  ;  popular  educa- 
tion discouraged,  308,  309  ;  Will- 
iam and  Mary  College  in,  309, 
310 ;  literary  development  -in, 
slow,  310. 

Washington,  George,  on  advan- 
tages of  popular  education,  307, 
314. 

William  and  Mary  College  founded 
in  Virginia,  309. 

Williams,  Dr.,  on  education  in  China, 
11. 

Wines,  quoted,  on  Jewish  education, 
31,  32. 

Woman,  degradation  of,  in  Oriental 


INDEX. 


335 


nations,  10, 18,  22;  education  of, 
in  Sparta,  44  ;  in  Athens,  51,  65, 
64 ;  in  Rome,  67 ;  education  of, 
neglected  in  the  middle  ages,  111, 
112  ;  Fenelon  on  "  Education  of 
Girls,"  228,  231;  Rousseau's 
views,  254,  255 ;  education  of, 
in  India,  290. 

Xenophon,  on  education  among  the 


Persians,  23,  24  ;  on  the  charac- 
ter of  Socrates,  59,  60. 

Yverdun,  Pestalozzi's  school  in,  272, 
273 ;    Froebel's 
282,  283. 


experience    in, 


Zoroaster,  founder  of  Persian  re- 
ligion, 21. 
Zwingli,  on  teaching,  153,  154. 


THE  END. 


